Constitutional And Universal Culture Administer A Distinct...

Liberal constitutional and universal culture administer a distinct picture of the litigation system. The two tell us that litigation centralizes around the courtroom, and that, in the Australian court system, along with the United Kingdom and United States, trials are regularly structured on an adversarial model. The Adversarial trial assigns particular and separate functions to the participants in the trial, especially the judge, the parties and the lawyers. The conclusion is that, when each party accomplish his or her designated function, then fair and impartial decisions will be achieved. In the structure of a trial which we have developed in this country, the judge determines the points at matter raised by the parties, but does not†¦show more content†¦The concept of this is that it is the judge’s duty to maintain the equilibrium of the trial and between the parties. Although I strongly believe that our law system is exceedingly fair, there are circumstances in which a fair trial is difficult to achieve, for example when one of the parties represents themselves in court such as in the case ‘Dietrich v R’. This causes problems, due to the fact that, in the majority of cases, an accused who decides to go to court unrepresented is highly disadvantaged. This is be cause, in general, the accused has inadequate awareness of the legal system and lack the expertise and skill to deal with their case in the same way a lawyer would be able to. In circumstances like these, a judge is prompted to lead the accused through the trial in order to ensure that an appropriate defence is given to the jury. This can cause serious problems within the courtroom for many reasons. Firstly, by the judge lending a ‘helping hand’ to the unrepresented, this provides an unfair advantage. Secondly, a trial judge and a defence attorney have two extremely contrasting roles and any attempt by a trial judge to execute an attorney’s role will only result in problems being caused. It is usually acknowledged that a person has the right to self representation in civil or criminal affairs. Legal professionals have a persuasive ability over the depiction of defendants in court. Each litigant is responsible for commencing and

Risks of Nursing Essay - 1383 Words

According to Dictionary.com a nurse is a person formally educated and trained in the care of the sick or infirm. The encyclopedia states that a nursing diagnosis may be a part of the nursing process and is a clinical judgment about individual, family, or community experiences or responses to actual or potential health problems that life processes. The actual nursing diagnosis could possibly be a factor before one can even become a certified nurse. The nursing diagnosis is a critical part of making sure all the knowledge for the practice is obtained precisely. Risk factors for nurses are currently at its highest peak, because of a lot of new diseases that have spread overtime. Although local hospitals and the government have been able to†¦show more content†¦Unlike regular people that visit the hospital nurses are around patients all the time. The nurses are more prone to receiving all different types of infections, sicknesses, and diseases. Nurses not only can receive certai n types of sicknesses and diseases from being around in a sick environment, but also certain disinfected sprays. For example the first disinfecting spray alkaline glutaralyhede, is a disinfectant is used to sterilize medical instruments. Research in the article of the Assessment of Patients, found that the certain type of spray has association with respiratory problems and often results in respiratory therapy. The hospitals worldwide try their best to enforce the rules of preventing client to nurse transmission, but sometimes the sickness is bigger than they think. â€Å"A communicable disease is caused by an infectious agent that is spread from person to person, either directly or indirectly. In their practice, nurses may accidentally or inadvertently transmit a communicable disease to clients† (crnbc.ca/). The article, Injection Safety states that,† The reuse of needles, syringes and other injection or infusion equipment can result in transmission of blood borne patho gens, endangering patients/residents and staff.† Injection Safety is prevented by making sure one does not reuse needles and syringes. Although it may seem simple and very unbelievable that one might forget; it is not. Majority of needles and syringes that areShow MoreRelatedRisk Management Nursing Documentation Nur 4921008 Words   |  5 PagesRisk Management Nursing Documentation Oscar Chavez NUR 492 May 4, 2012 Susan Dean, RN, MSN, FNP Risk Management Nursing Documentation The issue of documentation of patient care has received considerable attention in the last few years for an array of reasons. 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The article â€Å"Strategies to support prevention, identification and management of pressure ulcers in the community† by Drew Payne, focuses on community nursing and provides information on how to identify patients at risk, on pressure ulcer prevention, on proper patient and familyRead MoreThe Role Of Nurses On Risk Of Cesarean Births1247 Words   |  5 Pages The Nurses Role In Minimizing Risk of Cesarean Births Tara Harper Delaware County Community College The Nurses Role In Minimizing Risk of Cesarean Births A woman, pregnant for the first time, tells her doctor that she would like to have a scheduled cesarean, to avoid experiencing the pain of labor. This is a common discussion that takes place and more often the physician is giving his consent. What happened to cesarean births being a choice when all efforts

Courage Essay Example For Students

Courage Essay Outline1 Introduction2 Types of courage3 Bravery on a daily basis4 Conclusion Introduction Thanks to all the Hollywood films and macho movie stars we now have a vivid portrayal of what true courage looks like. Only that it’s not quite accurate, as well as it doesn’t paint a full picture of what being courageous really is. Courage is defined as the inner strength needed to take action, against a palpable or imagined risk that creates a state of fear, with the purpose of overcoming it. There is more than one single type of courage, and despite the fact that the physical one exhibited in the movies is the first that comes to mind when talking of this subject, there are different others, that need mentioning. Types of courage Where bravery is concerned, more than one thesis has tried to accurately exemplify what type of courage would be associated with various fear defiant actions. For example, speaking out against injustice isn’t in the same category as the physical notion of it. Despite finding in English Oxford Dictionary only two main classes that comprise every way of being courageous, we managed to detail it in six slightly different categories. Physical courage is the bravery to face a situation with calm, even while risking harm or even death. As mentioned above, physical courage is the one that most people imagine at the first thought. The often repeated narrative of awe-striking actions that people have accomplished during stressful situations, disregarding their own safety has transformed many into local heroes. This category is the most popular as everyone dreams of being a hero. Completely different from the physical kind, we find moral courage. This is centered on respecting one’s values and principles and focuses on speaking out against injustice. The risk, in this case, is of facing opposition on different degrees, going from the disapproval of others, to public shaming or even social banning. Deriving of the previous one comes to the social type of bravery. This means confronting one of human’s greatest fear, overtopping even the fear of death. And that is the fear of being publicly shamed. Seeing how we are genetically predisposed to be a social being, public shaming becomes something that repulses us on a cellular level. It’s one of the most common anguish and not being able to overcome it can transform it in more complex issues, ranging from stage fright to agoraphobia. Emotional courage comes right up, and we’ve all surely experienced it. Opening up to someone, despite the fear of rejection constantly nagging us in the back of our heads. It’s mainly associated with happiness and seems to be a stepping stone towards the development of intimacy. Without ever being considered worthy of the title, intellectual courage can be one of the hardest kinds to achieve. It basically requires admitting you’ve made a mistake. Being able to challenge your thinking and to submit to logical arguments, despite trying to protect your ego. The same is to be said of taking risks on an innovative idea while failing is a high rate probability. Therefore, it’s associated with investment and business judgment, inventions and innovations and high-stakes decisions. Sometimes encountered in the moral category, spiritual courage can stand out as a separate type. Although its main drive is speaking out against injustice, this feeling comes from defending personal beliefs of the sacred kind, religious and spiritual alike. It can also mean questioning your faith and life purpose either from a religious point of view or a more practical oriented one. Bravery on a daily basis Being courageous does wonder for one’s self-esteem and acknowledging that people break their self-imposed barriers each and every day, helps them evolve. Fending off bullies to protect yourself, your loved ones or a complete stranger Fighting off any form of racism or any kind of prejudice, even if it’s a verbal manifestation or a more brutal one Getting out of your comfort zone, trying new experiences that could vary from tasting new food to sky-gliding Speaking out in public, holding a speech in front of strangers, even making a work-related presentation in front of your colleagues Asking your crush on a date, or on the contrary, cutting ties in a relationship that has become bad for you, even if it’s amorous or just an acquaintance with a bad influence Leaving your steady job to follow a less sure dream job or pursue a risky financial investment that you believe in Having an open, calm discussion with a person whose views on your faith are radically different than yours .u9336e8f806f406c95ccc6b986aa97e43 , .u9336e8f806f406c95ccc6b986aa97e43 .postImageUrl , .u9336e8f806f406c95ccc6b986aa97e43 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u9336e8f806f406c95ccc6b986aa97e43 , .u9336e8f806f406c95ccc6b986aa97e43:hover , .u9336e8f806f406c95ccc6b986aa97e43:visited , .u9336e8f806f406c95ccc6b986aa97e43:active { border:0!important; } .u9336e8f806f406c95ccc6b986aa97e43 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u9336e8f806f406c95ccc6b986aa97e43 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u9336e8f806f406c95ccc6b986aa97e43:active , .u9336e8f806f406c95ccc6b986aa97e43:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u9336e8f806f406c95ccc6b986aa97e43 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u9336e8f806f406c95ccc6b986aa97e43 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u9336e8f806f406c95ccc6b986aa97e43 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u9336e8f806f406c95ccc6b986aa97e43 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u9336e8f806f406c95ccc6b986aa97e43:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u9336e8f806f406c95ccc6b986aa97e43 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u9336e8f806f406c95ccc6b986aa97e43 .u9336e8f806f406c95ccc6b986aa97e43-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u9336e8f806f406c95ccc6b986aa97e43:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Why It Is Important to Respect an Nco EssayConclusion Although there are many adjectives for courage, besides heroism and valor which we’ve already discussed above, another less fathomed one can be found. And that is recklessness. Because while it might be a trait, everybody is looking for, courage can fall in an unwanted extreme, where precautions are cast aside, and it no longer feels like an admirable quality. You have the inner force to overcome your fears, and even though it might not be the kind of action that gets applauses all-around, it surely is a personal victory that you need to cherish.

Slavery, Racism, and the trans

Slavery is a practice which dates back thousands of years. Conversely, racial discrimination is more appropriately defined by the mental and concrete conduct of the tormenter and the oppressed and their environmental context. Racism essentially defines the revulsion and trepidation that people keep on mankind with different skin colors.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Slavery, Racism, and the trans-Atlantic Slave Trade specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The advent of the trans-Atlantic slave trade in the early modern period gives evidence of how old slavery is. Europeans who arrived in Africa came with the impression that they are much superior to Africans. This wont angle clearly signifies how to a degree slavery arose from racism. Africans were seen as lesser human beings who were incapable of much advancement. They were viewed as uncouth and vulgar, traits which differed from the White generations. Colonizers he nce used this claim to justify their being slaves. Africans were seen as less than ordinary human beings who did not merit equal consideration, therefore could not be treated as humanely as the others. There was widespread suspicion, which eventually led to substantial abuse, which further intensified the determination of the Whites to have laborers. The more the White population increased the more demand for labor in plantations and the existing manufacturing industries. In England, for example, the staff was thoroughly Black; hence the appearance of the idea of Africans being slaves. Their children inherited this image, and the slavery convention gradually became fortified. By the 17th century, Africans were convincingly seen as assets to be transacted. They were part of the transactions including other stuff in trade. Ciphers were formulated in an attempt to control slaves. Laws which were formulated later in the century endeavored to establish punctilious preeminence over Black people. This form of racism was bent to ensure that Blacks resigned to their fate of being slaves. These codes gave them no hope of ever acquiring sovereignty. Blacks were not seen as worthy of the privileges of liberty for which they were demanding. Whites constantly oppressed Africans in order to self-enhance their ego. This self-centered psychology and bigoted personality are what resulted in slavery in various countries. This impacted other colonies who strived to pass Black descendants through these ideologies. Presently, African Americans in America comprise the greater percentage of the prison population. They are among the most poor, uneducated and unemployed. Police are also more likely to kill a Black man than a White individual. The innate fear and hatred that we have on the success of other skin colors indicate the extraordinary existance of racism. Advertising Looking for essay on african american? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Discrimination is part of the process of oppression. Differences in inherited characteristics, for example, skin color, have been used traditionally used to classify the oppressed as less inferior. In the context of the Atlantic Slave Trade, it could be argued that racism in the New World arose from slavery. Bigotry was an outcome of slavery at the onset of early entrepreneurship. Slavery existed as a system of trade before America began its conquests, long before racism could be defined. Classical roman empires were based on the slave trade which had no relations to the skin color of people. Slaves were mainly from countries which had been conquered, or victims of war. There was no interest on the ethnic attribution of the slaves, as their sole purpose was to provide. Humans were classified as either cultured or heathen. Hence, a White person could be considered as barbaric therefore less accomplished while a wise black being could be viewed as more productive. The civilization process could not have been that rapid had the spirit and input of slaves not have been integrated in maturity. The trans-Atlantic slave trade, which lasted hundreds of years, is credited for the massive migration of Blacks and the intensification of the slave trade. It was the initiation of globalization of the new world. This resulted in Africans being transacted as property by Americans and Europeans leading to their exploitation and eventually prejudice. The trade was all-inclusive, leading to an outsized economic framework for the coordinating countries. Religious, legal and philanthropic grounds justified forced labor. The culture and religion of many African communities were affected through this trend hence disadvantaging the intensification of success in the continent. Africa could not compete effectively with other continents, predominantly America and Europe who were growing their economies through forced labor. The world viewed Africa as a continent of slaves who were doomed to be second-rate to other races. Slavery thus resulted in the background of racial discrimination, with the Whites stereotyping Blacks as being substandard. These stereotypes were so severe that even Whites who were much poorer than some Blacks were seen as superior and deserving better treatment. The color of their skin exempted them from slavery and ensured their receipt of essential civil rights. The Blacks were keenly supervised in plantations, for fear of revolts. This fear of a revolution gradually grew tensions between the two races; the slave and the lord, leading to the formation of ethnic distinctiveness in the western countries.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Slavery, Racism, and the trans-Atlantic Slave Trade specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More These new distinctions destabilized the resistance of the White generation to slavery. Whites who were once slaves got incorporated into more benign forms of paid employment. Slavery was subsequently exclusively related to any Black person. Any African was thus seen as a potential slave, incase an individual was not one already. The cultural boundaries were thus opened by slavery in the new world. Slavery lasted for the many years due to its profitability. The affluent became richer as the sweat of the unpaid slaves expanded their farms. The trans-Atlantic transactions of slaves were also promoted by some African leaders who collaborated with Whites in capturing slaves. This portrays an imperfect image for Africans who are seen to have encouraged the trade. The domestic disturbance successfully eradicated slavery in the United States. Unfortunately, the effect on slavery was exceedingly minimal. Just as it was created to explain forced labor, racism was fashioned to classify Blacks as second-rate citizens. During colonization, the super powers exploited different territories in search of cheap raw materials to mait ain their industries. They made decisions for the populace in the invaded territories thus signifying their superiority. Racism continued in order to justify the mistreatment during the trans-Atlantic traffic. The development of African children who learn about their inferiority at a tender age is undoubtedly influenced. Leaders were taught how to administer power by practicing dictatorship. Changing this understanding in order to promote democracy in African countries thus becomes extremely difficult. Europeans and Americans therefore have no weight to disparage the administration criteria of Africans heads of state. This employment of political force has affected many countries, increasing distraught conditions like paucity and food shortage. The above arguments suggest that racism was made my man in order to justify certain actions like slavery. This means that racial segregation can be eliminated through reducing the feelings of supremacy. The relationship of discrimination and private enterprises is immensely valid. In any capitalistic setting, racism must always be involved. Capitalism is the source of ethnic segregation, and its abolishment will unquestionably eradicate racism.Advertising Looking for essay on african american? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This essay on Slavery, Racism, and the trans-Atlantic Slave Trade was written and submitted by user Roselyn Potter to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Research on Parental Involvement in Adolescents Life as an Element to Contribute To Identity Formation

Research on Parental Involvement in Adolescents Life as an Element to Contribute To Identity Formation Introduction Every stage of Development of human being is very important especially the adolescence. This is because it is purported that it’s at this stage that the formulation of sense of identity takes place.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Research on Parental Involvement in Adolescents Life as an Element to Contribute To Identity Formation specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Basically identity is described as the cohesive set of personal qualities concerning life goals like career developmental religious values and political ideologies. Achieving e a stable ego identity allows adaptability and future development besides creating an integrated sense of oneself (Faber et al, 2008, p. 244). Besides, attaining a stable mature quality experience is a crucial part of adolescent identity formulation. It’s believed that before adolescents can commit themselves to certain value system they observe and exploit the value their parents portray, assess and compare them with other alternative ideologies. Hence, parents’ idea and qualities can play a critical role in formation of child identity. Objectives The aim of the paper will be to explore the role of active involvement of parents in raising their children through adolescence and the impact on the formation of identity. Basically, theory states that native participation in their children’s lives influential on how they behaved and set their goals in life. Specifically, the research will explore the process through which identity statuses are related to the process of achieving parent-child value similarity – the accurate perception of parent value and the acceptance of these values by children. The paper will also describe the role of parents as reflective agents in comparison with the process of formulation of identity (Knafo Schwartz, 2004, p. 441; Schachter Ventura, 2008, p. 449). Purpose of Study This research will be aimed at examining the relationship between the process of identify development in adolescents and the process of parent child value analogy. The research will exploit the impact of active interaction of parents with children builds their identity formation (Faber et al, 2008, p. 243).Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The paper will present a theoretical assessment of the significance of the theory for the formation of an all-inclusive background theory of identity formation. Hypothesis The active involvement of parents in the lives of their adolescent children contributed greatly to healthy identity formulation of these adolescent as opposed to inactive participation of parents in the lives of their children. Parent participation plays a crucial role in the process of adolescents’ (aged 13 – 17 years) identity formulations. Literature Review Due to the significance of adolescents forming a stable ego identity, there has been increased research set to explore the factors that affect ego identity. Many of these studies show that there are differences in the processes of identity formation during the adolescent years (Faber et al, 2008, p. 245). Theoretically, the development of identity takes time because of the need of exploration. Nonetheless, some studies show that this type of exploration is less likely to take place in a less secure home. A stable home supports exploration of external environments. This means that secure attachment that takes place when a family is stable and the adolescents face challenges of interpersonal and intrapersonal searching and this can result into formation of a stable ego identity (Faber et al, 2008, p. 245). There are several researches that have explored the connection between identity formulation and adolescent attachment. Family Stability The importance of family stability is quite evident in several studies. These studies show that families are organizations that are made up of subsystems including parents, sibling and spouse relationship, which define the manner in which family members interrelate (Faber et al, 2008, p. 245).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Research on Parental Involvement in Adolescents Life as an Element to Contribute To Identity Formation specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Alignment describes the way family members as individuals and comprising the subsystems are connected to each other and compared to the rest of family members and subsystems. Parental coalition is set when parents work in concert to provide the basic needs to their children and keep the children out of marital affairs (Knafo Schwartz, 2004, p. 441). This means family structure has been deemed to be a very significant influence on the identity formation, nonetheless in what manner family s tructure affects adolescent attachment degree and the formation of identity process has not been exclusively investigated. It’s been found that when adolescents are securely attached to their parents it’s a sign that they explored their environment more. Strong parental partnership developed clear boundaries between the parents and children, culminating into a secure attachment because the differentiation describes responsibilities and authority (Knafo Schwartz, 2004, p. 442). From the point of view of the parental influence, the degree to which the parent-child similarity is developed by a process that takes two phases of internalization. The first step is where the children have to notice the values their parent support and second step is where the children have to agree that these values appropriate and develop them as their own. This is a process referred to as value transmission and it could succeed or fail at any step.Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More For the first step of perception, children could observe that the values their parents quite acceptable in an accurate perception (Knafo Schwartz, 2004, p. 443). For the second step of acceptance, children could choose to agree to the values they perceive, but they could as well reject them as well. When children think that the parents’ values are accurate and accept them instead of rejecting them, then, value congruence will be higher (Schachter Ventura, 2008, p. 449). Adolescents Perception of Growth From the viewpoint of adolescent identity development, value systems are developed via a process where adolescents take on an ideological standpoint juxtaposed to those of their parents (Knafo Schwartz, 2004, p. 443). The value system is a major aspect in the stable occupational, ideological and relational dedication that comprises the adolescents’ emergent identity. Exploration entails searching, explaining and exploiting the possible alternatives of identity. Commit ment includes deciding to accept certain alternative as part of their self. The results of the commitment are to attain enduring self-orientation in several life domains like political, vocational and religious (Schachter Ventura, 2008, p. 451). Methodology Systematic Literature Search The research will use literature search to collect information. For this study articles that related to the topic of identity formulation and parenting of adolescents will be searched for study. This means that the researcher will search these articles on the internet (Knafo Schwartz, 2004, p. 443). Basically articles with information on identity statuses in adolescents (diffusion, moratorium, achievement and exploration), impact of parent values of ego identity of adolescents, family structure and attachment, and parent-children value analogy among other will be searched (Faber et al, 2008, p. 244). The major problems that would face the researcher may include where to get those sources and once th ese resources have been identified, knowing what to sieve or seek via an excess of information that will be available to determine what is important to the study. Enough time will be allocated to finding the relevant materials. Two main activities will be critical for this study. The brainstorming and the literature search itself (Faber et al, 2008, p. 245). At the start of the research, the investigator will develop a working bibliography based on knowledge of both print and electronic library resources and use of the referencing system to identify these sources. Search Plan The research will focus on how this topic progresses as the research is conducted via the documentation life-cycle. The possible approaches include looking for the books and articles that are currently accepted for use as references in the study and discover how they were cited. Seeking original reports and articles is very important (Knafo Schwartz, 2004, p. 444). This strategy will result in a structure like tree-diagram or a network that will show articles that are related. By assessing and reading the abstracts of these articles, it would be possible to categorize the articles by topic and also by the author’s interest in that particular work. The researcher will then search the reference lists of the papers to find relevant papers because at times the internet databases classify articles differently or categorize the papers by using different descriptions and different terms and key words. The search plan is a blue print to understanding of the information available because the electronic storage system is getting complicated and retrieve of research resources is advancing a great deal. Without a plan, there are high chances that the researcher might get lost in the sea of internet articles seeking relevant information or the search can just be going round the same articles. Expected Results In a research by Knafo and Shwatz, the results of their studies showed that identific ation and acceptance of parent value was high when adolescent correctly perceived their father values. Basically there was no significance difference between the acceptances of father value versus the mother values (Knafo Schwartz, 2004, p. 447). The researcher in this proposal anticipates that the relationship between the way parent and child values predicts the accuracy of perception and acceptance. Basically when there is low congruence then the parent-child value perception and acceptance will be low as well. The findings also showed that the accurateness of perception and approval the parental values are significant influencers of the parent-child value congruence as literature has often presumed based on the studies by Grusec and Goodnow in 1994 (Knafo Schwartz, 2004, p. 447). Grusec and Goodnow presented a two-phase process of value acquisition already discussed in literature review. It’s therefore important to examine how identity formation was related to acceptance and accuracy (Knafo Schwartz, 2004, p. 448). The results of accuracy perception versus identity formation indicate that the adolescent who are in the moratorium and achievement (high-exploration) level are able to correctly perceive the parental value than their counterparts in low status of exploration (diffusion and foreclosure) (Knafo Schwartz, 2004, p. 448). These studies also shows that the adolescent in the high-commitment statuses readily accepted their parents perceived values compared to their counterparts who happened to be in low commitment statuses. Faber el al found that the relationship between the family structure and attachment were positively correlated with poor attachment in families that faded some unresolved conflicts between spouses. With regard to attachment and identity, paper demonstrated that there was a positive correlation between father attachment and the level of identity attained (Faber et al, 2008, p. 247). This was quite different from other studi es which indicate that mother’s relationship and attachment were positive correlated to identity achievement. Parents usually feel very responsible for their children development of identity and sometimes consider themselves as the only factors that are responsible for influencing their children’s development. Being involves in development of identity of their children is not only because of concern, moral or success but rather their own identity (parent’s own identity). Parents interviewed in a study by (Schachter Ventura, 2008, p. 456) revealed that parents were concerned about the social identity of their children especially religion. This is basic traditional identity that families believe it should be passed on to next generations and that it was the responsibilities of parents (Schachter Ventura, 2008, p. 456). There were set identity goals for many families concerning their children’s identity formation and educational and vocational achievements . Whereas parents were educated in same framework of study, they had different goals in life compared to their children. However, the interpersonal morality is quite insisted for any of the studies. Conclusion Identity agents constantly evaluate and scrutinize the children and their environment at different levels so as to better arbitrate identity. Both parents are reported to have developed an understanding of the social factors that are important to the attainment of identities of their children. This is evident in the modern society where parent are seen to potently influence the identities of their children either by revitalization impact on morals and dedication or as an vast wave of continuous change. Identity formation is a part of development stage in life where adolescents take active role. Being able to get a chance to explore and then make a commitment to a certain identity has huge effect on the future development and success of such an individual. Therefore when one un derstands the factors that affect individual’s ability to attain identity, therapist can assist adolescents in their search for an identity. Besides the weaknesses of methodologies that have been used for related studies, this will be a crucial study that seeks to examine directly how the cognitive aspects of the adolescents are manifested as they seek their own identity to make a commitment to. Therefore this study will have crucial implications on the study about parenting styles and identity formation. Reference List Faber, A.J., Edwards, A.E., Bauer, K.S Wetchler, J.L. (2008). Family Structure: Its Effects on Adolescent Attachment and Identity Formation. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 31, 243-255 Knafo, A., Schwartz, S.H. (2004). Identity Formation and Parent- Child Value Congruence in Adolescence. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 22, 439-458 Schachter, E.P., Ventura, J.J. (2008). Identity Agents: Parents as Active and Reflective Participants in Th eir Childrens Identity Formation. Journal of Research on Adolescents, 18(3), 449-476.

Timeline of Events From 1840 to 1850

Timeline of Events From 1840 to 1850 The years from 1840 to 1850 were marked by war, political changes, a gold rush in California, and many other important events in America and around the world. 1840 January 10: Penny postage was introduced in Britain.January 13: In a shocking maritime disaster, the steamship Lexington burned and sank in Long Island Sound. Only four men survived and more than 150 passengers and crew perished.February 10: Queen Victoria of England married Prince Albert of Saxe Coburg-Gotha.May 1: The first postage stamps, Britain’s â€Å"Penny Black,† were issued.Summer/Fall: The 1840 presidential campaign was the first to prominently feature songs and slogans. William Henry Harrison won the presidency thanks to his Log Cabin and Hard Cider campaign, and the slogan Tippecanoe and Tyler Too! 1841 March 4: William Henry Harrison was inaugurated as president of the United States. He delivered a two-hour inaugural address in very cold weather. As a result, he caught pneumonia, from which he never recovered.Spring: A free black New Yorker, Solomon Northup, was lured to Washington, D.C., drugged, and kidnapped into slavery. He would tell his story in the powerful memoir Twelve Years a Slave.April 4: President William Henry Harrison died after only one month in office. He was the first American president to die in office and was succeeded by Vice President John Tyler.Autumn: Land was purchased in Massachusetts for Brook Farm, an experimental farming community frequented by Nathaniel Hawthorne, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and other writers and thinkers of the era.November 9: Edward VII of England, son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, was born. 1842 January: The British retreated from Kabul, Afghanistan and were massacred by Afghan troops.August 29: The First Opium War ended with the Treaty of Nanking.November: Showman Phineas T. Barnum tracked down a child in Connecticut said to be peculiarly small. The boy, Charles Stratton, would become a show business phenomenon known as General Tom Thumb. 1843 Summer: Oregon Fever gripped America, beginning mass migration westward on the Oregon Trail. 1844 February 28: An accident with a cannon on US Navy warship killed two members of John Tyler’s cabinet.May 24: The first telegram was sent from the U.S. Capitol to Baltimore. Samuel F.B. Morse wrote, â€Å"what hath God wrought.†August: Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels met in Paris.November: James Knox Polk defeated Henry Clay in the U.S. presidential election. 1845 January 23: The U.S. Congress established a uniform date for federal elections, naming the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November as Election Day.March 1: President John Tyler signed a bill annexing Texas.March 4: James Knox Polk was inaugurated as President of the United States.May: Frederick Douglass published his autobiography Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave.May 20: The Franklin Expedition sets sail from Britain. All 129 men on the expedition were lost during their attempt to explore the Arctic.Late Summer: The Irish potato famine, which would become known as the Great Famine, started with widespread failures of the potato crop. 1846 February 26: American frontier scout and showman William F. â€Å"Buffalo Bill† Cody was born in Iowa.April 25: Mexican troops ambushed and killed a patrol of U.S. soldiers. Reports of the incident inflamed tensions between the two nations.April-August: Francis Parkman traveled from St. Louis, Missouri to Ft. Laramie, Wyoming, and later wrote of the experience in the classic book The Oregon Trail.May 13: The U.S. Congress declared war against Mexico.June 14: In the Bear Flag Revolt, settlers in northern California declared independence from Mexico.December: The Donner Party, a party of American settlers in wagon trains, became stranded in the snow-covered Sierra Nevada Mountains in California and resorted to cannibalism to survive. 1847 February 22: U.S. troops commanded by General Zachary Taylor defeated a Mexican Army at the Battle of Buena Vista in the Mexican War.March 29: U.S. troops commanded by General Winfield Scott captured Veracruz in the Mexican War.June 1: Cornelius Vanderbilt, one of Americas richest and most competitive men, raced a steamboat against rival Daniel Drew in the Hudson River. Many thousands of New Yorkers lined the citys docks to watch the paddle wheelers race.Late summer: The potato famine continued in Ireland, and the year became known as Black 47.September 13-14: U.S. troops entered Mexico City and effectively ended the Mexican War.December 6: Abraham Lincoln took his seat in the U.S. House of Representatives. After serving a single two-year term, he returned to Illinois. 1848 January 24: James Marshall, a mechanic at John Sutters sawmill in northern California, recognized some unusual nuggets. His discovery would set off the California Gold Rush.February 23: Former president John Quincy Adams, who served as a U.S. Congressman from Massachusetts after leaving the presidency, died after collapsing in the U.S. Capitol building.July 12-19: A conference at Seneca Falls, New York, organized by Lucretia Mott and Elizbeth Cady Stanton, took up the issue of Womens Rights and planted the seeds of the suffrage movement in the U.S.November 7: Zachary Taylor, Whig candidate and a hero of the Mexican War, was elected President of the United States.December 5: President James Knox Polk, in his annual address to Congress, confirmed the discovery of gold in California. 1849 March 5: Zachary Taylor was inaugurated as the 12th president of the U.S. He was the third, and last, candidate of the Whig Party to hold the office.

The dark side of uhckleberry finn Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The dark side of uhckleberry finn - Essay Example The dark side of the story and of Huckleberry Finn himself is the central dilemma for Finn regarding what he should do with the escaped slave and his friend, Jim. Slavery and the ownership of one man by another was an accepted fact in the times and Huckleberry Finn is actually troubled by the concept that he is aiding and abetting an escaped slave (Bennett, 1974). His conscious is bothering him since civil duties and civic responsibilities ask him to return his friend to the master so he can be punished for his behavior while loyalty asks him to continue to help his buddy get to eventual freedom. Huck discusses this dilemma and debates it with himself when he says: â€Å"I tried to make out to myself that I warn’t to blame, because I didn’t run Jim off from his rightful owner; but it warn’t no use, conscience up and say, every time: ‘But you knowed he was running for his freedom, and you could a paddled ashore and told somebody (Wikisource, 2006).† F urther on in the passage Huck says: Conscience says to me: ‘What had poor Miss Watson done to you, that you could see her nigger go off right under your eyes and never say one single word? What did that poor old woman do to you, that you could treat her so mean? I got to feeling so mean and so miserable I most wished I was dead (Wikisource, 2006).† Huck is placed in the same dilemma again when he learns that Jim wants to steal his wife and children as well. Of course we can certainly appreciate the motives of Jim since he wishes to have his family with him and be free from the bondage of slavery but again Huckleberry Finn asks himself if he is doing the right thing by taking another man’s property (Bennett, 1974). While Finn is not above petty theft, he draws the line when it comes to real valuable property i.e. slaves, inheritance and entertainment money which belong to someone else. Essentially, it had

To Spy or Not to Spy Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

To Spy or Not to Spy - Case Study Example ny is as productive as possible, the incoming CEO intends to implement changes which will require employees to be more productive and managers to be more innovative. The current market situation as identified in the case shows increasing competition and laxity of employees as well as stagnated management which does not recognize the benefits of changes within the contemporary business model. The facts of the case as relating to the key decision makers identified above revolve around the incoming CEO, Schwartz, whose intention to transform the company proposes a series of changes among them an openly refutable suggestion to spy on employees. At the boardroom speech as he was addressing the management, Schwartz makes it know that he was for the idea that right technology was capable of making everything possible. Top management such as Photo, Thuy, and Ali Khan did not seem to agree with the idea that the incoming CEO was trying to impose his philosophy on the the company and forcing everyone else to buy into it. On a rather unfortunate turn of events, Miller, the HR Director seized the opportunity of being the pioneer of presenting and innovation that could enhance the employee output at the company; an idea that Schwartz coined to involve spying of employee’s internet and email activity. In his idea, Miller proposed a data collection program that could be used to monitor productivity but Schwartz idea was highly resisted as it was depriving employees of privacy (Unit 3 Case Study. pp. 1-14) The symptoms occurring on the case represent a number of factors that do not fit within the expectations of every character. Areas of conflict in the case involve the very personal nature of Schwartz and his history with implementing changes. With this fact overly anticipated, most of the managers already have negative opinion about his intentions. Technology as a means to improve performance and productivity is an acceptable factor with a downside every manager disagrees

Crusades and Pope Urban Essay Example for Free

Crusades and Pope Urban Essay The Christian Crusades occurred around the 11th and the 12th century are very many and complex. The Christian Crusades has built a tense relationship between the Christians and Islamic. This essay will explain the causes and effects of the Medieval Crusades. The importance of the holy lands as stated in the Islamic bible, Koran, and the Christian bible is the most significant cause of the Christian Crusades. Religious rivalry between the 2 religions was caused by the fact that both of these religions believed in 2 different gods. The Islam’s thought that there god was the true god whilst the Christians believed that there god was the one and true god. The fact that the Islam’s believed there god was the one and true, brought anger to the Pilgrims who were on a quest to take back the Holy lands which were Bethlehem, Nazareth and Jerusalem, which were controlled currently by the Muslims since 638AD. But as more and more pilgrims came to visit the Holy lands, Seljuk Turks, Saracens, took over the lands and denied more Pilgrimages to the Holy Lands. This brought great anger to Pope Urban II. Pope Urban II was responsible for the very first Christian Crusade. He started this by giving an extremely influential speech to all Christians in Europe and Medieval time saying that the Saracens were turning Christian Churches into Mosques which were Muslim churches. Pope Urban II then told all Christian men and European Christian Princes to go on a crusade to take back the Holy lands. The Pope also stated to these Christian men that by fighting in this holy war they would reach heaven. So the Christian Crusaders set their target on regaining one of the Holy lands which was Jerusalem. The result of the first crusade was not too good for the Muslims as 70,000 Muslims had died trying to flee from the city or fight to protect their city. A reason that explains the cause of the Christian Crusades, are the Christian men, the Knight class and Princes. Prior explains how Pope Urban II speech influences the Christian men, Knight classes and Princes of Europe to go on a crusade against their rivalry religion and to gain back the Holy Lands. Pope Urban II says to all these men that go on to their crusade, that if they do not fight back against the Saracens, god will not clear there sin. This was another reason for the Christian Crusade. Pope Urban II â€Å"blackmailing† these men to go to the Holy lands was a reason for why the Christian Crusades began in the first place. The Knight class were all men that wanted to fight. Since the age of seven, pagers, who were the first stage into becoming a knight, were taught special skills to fight. Every Crusader that was going on to gain back the lands had a sign on their tunics when they went to fight. This sign resembled St Johns Cross. The medieval Crusades have brought a strong intensity in these to religions that are still quite tense nowadays. Pope Urban II speech had urged men to go on this holy crusade and both the Koran and bible having two of the same holy places caused tension between these two religions. This essay has given the causes and effects of the holy crusades.

Elie Wiesels Survival in Night Essay -- essays research papers

Night Elie Wiesel writes about his personal experience of the Holocaust in his memoir, Night. He is a Jewish man who is sent to a concentration camp, controlled by an infamous dictator, Hitler. Elie is stripped away everything that belongs to him. All that he has worked for in his life is taken away from him instantly. He is even separated from his mother and sister. On the other side of this he is fortunate to survive and tell his story. He describes the immense cruel treatment that he receives from the Nazis. Even after all of the brutal treatment and atrocities he experiences he does not hate the world and everything in it, along with not becoming a brute. In Night, he informs his reader of many examples on how a myriad of good people turn into brutes. They see horrific actions, therefore, they cannot help by becoming a brute. They experience their innocent family members being burned alive, innocent people dieing from starvation due to a minuscule proportion of food, and innocent people going to take a shower and not coming out because truly, it is a gas chamber and all f...

World Trade Organization Changing Global Economy

Global trading has been a part of the world since the 1940s. As trade between countries began to grow so did the need for some sort of international commerce. In 1948, the International Trade Organization (ITO) was established, but fell through and triggered the creation of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). GATT was created through several negotiations, known as rounds. For many years, GATT's policies held strong and offered many countries the international support they needed to remain prosperous in global trade. Though, as time went on, certain trade policies established by GATT were being undermined by countries in order for them to continue conducting business. GATT's rules and regulations were becoming obsolete in the rapid changing global economy. â€Å"By the early 1980s the General Agreement was clearly no longer relevant to the realities of world trade as it had been in the 1940s. For a start, world trade had become far more complex and important than 40 years before: the globalization of the world economy was underway, trade in services – not covered by GATT rules – was of major interest to more and more countries, and international investment had expanded† (World Wide Web. http://www. wto. org/wtoabout/facts1. htm). The eighth round (Uruguay Round 1986-1994) was the most recent and thorough of them all. The Uruguay Round had 125 countries participating, it is the largest trade negotiation to ever take place. Though this round was expected to fail from the start, it actually started some of the largest trade reforms since GATT and WWII. This round, lasting some 7 1/2 years, established the World Trade Organization (WTO) and a new set of agreements. The World Trade Organization was enacted on January 1, 1995. There are three main purposes of the WTO stated in the WTO web site. These three main goals are to help trade flow as freely as possible, serve as a forum for trade negotiations, and deal with dispute settlements. How the WTO remains so effective is by setting up universal guidelines for members to follow and enforcing them. One of the most important changes made in WTO, is the addition of the trade rules regarding trade in intellectual property and services, as well as, products. The WTO site is currently discussing many articles. There are a few which strike my interest such as the EC and U. S. banana dispute which we had previously discussed in class, the increase of WTO members to 134, and the intellectual property proposal concerning the US and Japanese idea for a multilateral system and registering geographical locations. There is an article on low income developing countries in the GATT/WTO framework, which is planning on discussing special provisions that should be offered to these under-developed and developing countries, which were involved in the Uruguay Round Agreements. â€Å"Developing Countries comprise the majority of the membership of the World Trade Organization. On the other hand, the European Communities, the United States, and other industrialized countries enjoy the greatest shares of international trade† (World Wide Web. ttp://www. wto. org/). The Dispute Settlement Body (DSB) is the â€Å"law† of the WTO. It is the body in the WTO that analyzes the trade policies and interprets the rules regarding them. Two of the three sites we were advised to use on this paper were not accessible, so I just improvised and used Internet sites that had similar information on them. One of the articles I found on worker's rights was very informative. It discussed the U. S. Secretary of Labor, Alexis Herman, and the ties of core labor standards. Last June, a declaration was announced in Geneva by the International Trade Organization (ILO). The International Labor Conference, held by ILO members, adopted this declaration with intentions of creating a stronger protection on core rights of workers, and holding each country accountable for this protection. On May 18, President Clinton Made a speech stating that the ILO and WTO need to maintain a working relationship in order to advance the global trading system while protecting the worker's basic rights. This is a big step forward for the ILO and its members as we enter the 21st Century. With the passage of this Declaration, the ILO has underlined and clarified the importance of the fundamental rights of workers in an era of economic globalization† (Statement by Secretary Herman). Some of the current trade disputes discussed in the WTO are the disputes going on about the bananas between the United States and the European Communities. This dispute is actually being talked about this week in the Wall Street Journal. Both sides are frustrated. The U. S. is because they feel the EU has unfairly made loop holes in WTO guidelines, and the EU is upset because they say the U. S. is trying to control too much of their rights as global traders. The U. S. has stated that the EU has been purposly avoiding banana purchases in Latin America, and doing business in areas like Africa, where Europe has many ties. The WTO has the responsibility to work on a plan that will hopefully satisfy both parties to some degree, but the U. S. as strong opinions of implementing 520 million dollars worth of tariffs on EU imports into our country. Another dispute that is taking place is the Korean acoholic beverage tax. This is a matter the WTO is also trying to fix. The U. S. and EC don't agree with the tax that Korea is implementing on their imported alcoholic beverages. Again, the WTO pages website is inactive so I found some information in another forum about certain issue which are being reviewed. One of the hottest items right now seems to be assistance for low-income developing countries. Many changes are taking place for developing countries, and the way they are conducting their international business. For one, they are aborting many of their uses of tariffs on infant companies to try and support growth. Secondly, they are altering their management to make themselves more attractive to foreign investment, which in turn will increase foreign direct investment and help create more supportive trade balances. These developing nations are strongly advised to take part in the WTO, so they can reap the benefits it has to offer. The WTO, with its multilateral trade view, simply allows smaller economic powers to be more fairly involved in world trade without being victimized and taken advantage of by stronger economic powers in the old bilateral style of global trading. In the 21st Century global trading will be more fine-tuned than it is right now. We should see the elimination of tariffs, subsidies, quotas, etc. The world should be working like a large country, with open markets in every nation. Comparative advantage will establish itself, and trade balances will be less drastic. Under-developed and developing countries will become developed. In my View, I think that in the 21st Century, the world will operate as one large entity in the aspects of economic markets. Though, the creation of the WTO brought many great new ideas and helped closer unite the world into one huge market, there are still bugs that need to be worked out, and as time goes on, we will see need for more changes and adjustments. A few of the areas that the WTO needs to rectify and further develop now are areas such as worker's rights, environmentalism, and foreign direct investment.

Essay on the Concept of Power

Nertile Latifi and Brikena Sela Julie Kolgjini Writing Seminar 0502-227 October 07, 2008 What is power, and how does it present itself in our lives? We know for certain that it proves as the one thing that either keeps people together, makes them revolt, or changes history overall. But what is it really? Is it the ability to do or act, or is it political/national strength? Does it always have to be represented by a person in charge? Or is it just something in our minds that has the possession to control our influence. There are so many meanings behind this short yet ‘powerful’ word, such as that which is discussed in Orwell’s Animal Farm, and that which is part of human nature. To begin with, various resources provide different illustrations of power. Reading George Orwell’s Animal Farm, it gives us the view of power in a form of an animal representing us humans. A short summary of the book is that of how one animal, a pig, in the whole bunch has the courage to stand up and feed the other animals with brainwashing information. He begins with things that amuse the group which was mainly equality for all. Since the farmer was in charge of the animals’ lives, the pig reaches out to them in their weakest point by promising them freedom and equality. The pig does this only so the others will agree with every other decision he makes. Time after time, he slowly changes the rules here and there, still pretending to be egalitarian. The rest of the animals are so convinced that they are being led towards the right path from the beginning, they never stop to analyze what they were actually doing, which was whatever they were told by the pig. Eventually they are brought back to the same position by their own kind, as they had been in the beginning by the farmer: following the dictates of a single individual. Thus, according to Animal Farm, we come to understand that power is simply something that is passed on in life. In the story, it was the one thing that kept the animals together doing whatever they were told. If any animal became somewhat suspicious of someone daring to stand up to the leader, they were thrown out immediately. Yet, from the reader’s point of view, it is what causes mayhem in our minds to know that we, as people, are fooled the same way by everyday things. You realize how brainwashing is used and devoured by those who don’t contemplate the consequences of authoritarian regimes. Now, if we â€Å"zoom in† to the big picture, power has a role in each tiny event of our daily lives. Every one of us wants and needs power to show our importance and presence. It is our egos drug. It begins very early in our childhood, when we first start to explore the limit of our power. A little child crying very loudly, for example, waits to see when mom or dad lose their patience and say stop or no. Until then it is not going to stop crying, which shows how we use our power, even if it’s only for some more candy. Later on, that child, lets name her Visvira (which in Latin stands for power), is going to build friendships with other children. Even in the Sandbox there is a hierarchy. Everyone has his/her role; the stronger children like Visvira, who maybe have a lot of power at home, will most likely use it in relation with other children too, and are the unofficial leaders of the whole bunch. It doesn’t even have to be a bunch. In many cases of a friendship of two people, one is always more powerful than the other and time and again it shows, for example, when telling his/her weaker friend what to do. Power rules the world, and as said before it starts with every one of us. We all have the need for power, beginning with the power of controlling ourselves. Visvira is going to grow up, and have many arguments with her parents, which mostly start because she wants more power for herself. She wants to decide more on her own, and her parents are often afraid of giving her too much power. When Visvira has collected that much knowledge to know that it’s not always best to decide everything on her own, she is called an adult. In adulthood power still shows, but differs from the naive use in childhood. Adulthood power is weighed more definite. Visvira is in her first real relationship where she just started to go out with her new boyfriend. From the first day on, each side shows indirectly his and her strengths and powers. What they’ve learned until now is that one always has to give in, if it’s worth the sacrifice. Visvira’s boyfriend for example learned this earlier in his teenage-years, and decided to be the weaker one, who’d rather do what the powerful tell them to, than risk on his own. Hence, Visvira turns out to be dominant in the relationship. She decides what they’re going to do, when, and why. Visvira got so good in using her power it’s even helping in her career. The power she has at home with her family and with her boyfriend gives her confidence and strengthens her so much, that she’s not afraid of being dismissed when coming up with new ideas. After Visvira and her boyfriend move in and get married, she even makes more money than him, which presents another big presence of power. Her life goes on like this when they have children too. She keeps on making the decisions because she wears the pants in the family. But as her children grow up, guess what they’re going to do? Like their mother, they’re going to fight for their own power, and Visvira gets to her last part of life: â€Å"Senior-hood†. She knows now, she isn’t the boss anymore, but the power she lost is given to her back in love and respect. â€Å"All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others (Orwell 133). As the most influential quote in the entire book, it shows the reality of by what rules our world operates. Orwell is known as an author who tries hard to show readers his view on society and how easily fooled it becomes when there is only one individual in power. From both our examples, we came to an agreement th at our definition of power is when one is able to control your influence so much, you are bound to believe whatever he or she says, even that â€Å"2+2=5. † Work Cited Orwell, George. Animal Farm. New York: Harcourt, Brace & Company Inc. 1946. Orwell, George. 1984. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1949.

Examining The Traditional Indigenous Community Structures Religion Essays

Examining The Traditional Indigenous Community Structures Religion Essays Examining The Traditional Indigenous Community Structures Religion Essay Examining The Traditional Indigenous Community Structures Religion Essay Traditional Autochthonal communities were really structured and the people within them abided by many hereditary Torahs and ordinances. Autochthonal people believe that all their customary Torahs were established during the Dreamtime ( the clip of creative activity ) by their ascendants. These Torahs determined the appropriate behaviors of different people within the folk. The Torahs besides decided which nutrients could be eaten, how nutrient should be shared, people s rights and duties, household regulations, matrimony agreements, spiritual responsibilities and penalties for those who broke the regulations ( Customary Law, Traditional Life, Aboriginal People and Torres Strait Islanders, 2005 ) . 2.0 The diverseness of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Torahs There are about five-hundred known Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander states ( Hamper et.al, 2009, p.58 ) . Within each of these states are a figure of kins. Each of these kins has their ain district, traditions and rites and has developed a alone jurisprudence. Therefore, there are 1000s of signifiers of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples customary jurisprudence. However, all of the kins have a religious footing by which to organize their jurisprudence. For illustration, the Dreamtime is of great importance to the constitution of the jurisprudence and the function of the land and spiritualty in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander customary jurisprudence. 3.0 The religious nature of customary jurisprudence The chief rule of traditional Aboriginal society is belief in the unity of the religious, human and natural universe ( Aspects of Traditional Aboriginal Australia, 2007 ) . Aboriginal spiritualty is based on the Dreaming ( derived from Dreamtime ) , Totems and connexion with land and organic structures of H2O. 3.1 The Dream This religious worldview is known as the Dreaming, and it permeates every facet of traditional Aboriginal life. The importance of the Dreamtime lies in the manner it tells how the liquors made and maintained the land and how they laid down the jurisprudence. The kernel of the Dreaming is that every portion of the life force the Ancestral Beings, the land, the sea, worlds, zoologies, vegetations and natural phenomena is inextricably and everlastingly connected to every other portion. Furthermore, through the observation of ritual and ceremonial, worlds are able to come in into a direct relationship with the Dreaming ( Aspects of Traditional Aboriginal Australia, 2007 ) 3.2 Totems An of import facet of Aboriginal spiritualty is the belief that every individual has a totem. Totemism describes the relationship between an person with a works or animate being species, or a status or a state of affairs. In traditional Aboriginal belief each individual s totem originates in the topographic point where that individual s female parent was impregnated with a spirit kid. Spirit kids are released in peculiar sacred topographic points by the Ancestral Beings. For illustration, a pregnant adult female near the site of a goanna will er unborn kid is instantly affiliated with the goanna totem31. 3.3 Connection with land and organic structures of H2O The close bonds between Aboriginal people and the physical and religious universes are particularly evident in relation to land. Land is vested in each member of the linguistic communication group as a sacred legacy from the Dreaming, and thereby provides the foundation for the group s being. Each group s district is physically, spiritually, economically and culturally indispensable for endurance. Consequently, connexion to land is an built-in portion of the mind of every individual within the linguistic communication group. 4.0 The characteristics of Aboriginal and Torres strait Islander jurisprudence There are four cardinal characteristics of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples customary jurisprudence ; orally based, understanding on Torahs throughout the whole group, household and affinity ties and, based on rites and traditions. A cardinal characteristic of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander jurisprudence is the construct of shared ownership of the land and resources. This construct is in desolate in contrast to European jurisprudence, which is devoted to the rule of private ownership 5.0 Ritual and unwritten traditions The rites that each kin practiced came from their assorted readings of the Dreamtime. These rites were found in all countries of life, including faith and customary jurisprudence. In a similar manner to European jurisprudence, hence, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander customary jurisprudence has a strong ritual component. For illustration, ritual ceremonials affecting particular sacred sites, vocal rhythms are accompanied by dance, and organic structure picture, and even athleticss ( Autochthonal Traditions Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders, 2006 ) . One of the chief characteristics of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander customary jurisprudence is that it is unwritten jurisprudence. This means that the jurisprudence is non written down but alternatively transmitted by word of oral cavity. Each coevals must retrieve the Torahs and so go through them on to the undermentioned coevals. Songs, dance and narratives were used to assist members of the kin retrieve the assorted Torahs that applied to their group. One of the jobs associated with unwritten jurisprudence is that it can be forgotten or misinterpreted. As one coevals passes on the jurisprudence to another, it is easy for it to be inadvertently modified. To get the better of this job, Aboriginal people would merely disregard a jurisprudence that had changed to the point that it was now unfair. This is one of the chief advantages of unwritten jurisprudence: its flexibleness. As a society adapts, so can the jurisprudence. In European-based legal systems, altering the jurisprudence involves a long and normally time-consuming procedure ; as a effect, the legal system can go out of measure with the outlook of society. 6.0 Dispute Resolution Dispute declaration involves mediation and conciliation carried out by seniors of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities. Mediation involves all parties involved in a difference speaking through their issues and seeking to decide their jobs through dialogue. Rather than passing out penalty to a individual who broke tribal Torahs or imposts, Autochthonal legal tradition holds that it is better to hold a household member talk to the person and effort to decide the job by treatment. Where a difference could non be resolved through mediation, conciliation would be used. In this method of difference declaration, the seniors of the folk would run into with the people in the struggle and effort to help them to make a declaration through treatment and duologue. Their gray hair frequently identifies seniors, nevertheless, younger wise work forces would besides take part in meetings. However, the seniors in Autochthonal communities are deceasing out doing it hard to include them in meetings. 7.0 Sanctions There are legion countenances within Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples customary jurisprudence. The primary countenances include: societal ridicule and isolation, retaliation, contending and contemptuous, test by ordeal and, inquest. Tribal penalty is existing in Aboriginal civilization. Traditional penalty is a subdivision of customary jurisprudence ; punishes wrongdoers violatin and transgressing Aboriginal community values. Theway in which penalty is laid out is similar to that of the Australian felon justness system. A meeting is held consisting the accused, complainant and seniors who decide the punishment and the badness of penalty. An illustration of a common penalty is the accused being speared a figure of times in the thigh. 8.0 You should reason your study with an sentiment, supported by grounds, as to whether the two signifiers of jurisprudence under consideration are compatible and could co-exist in Australia. There are important differences between the modern Australian legal system based on English common jurisprudence and Indigenous customary Torahs. Under Australian jurisprudence there is a clear separation between legal affairs and spiritual societal and moral values. However, traditional Aboriginal jurisprudence is ineluctably based on Aboriginal faith ; the Dreamtime provides the acceptable codifications of behavior in all facets of life. Some countries of customary jurisprudence are compatible in Australia such as mediation and acknowledgment of traditional land. A signifier of mediation referred to as circle sentencing has been incorporated into the condemnable justness system. For illustration, the Koori tribunal, an enterprise of the Victorian Aboriginal Justice Agreement, aims to right overrepresentation of Autochthonal wrongdoers in the condemnable justness system through the debut of justice-related plans and services in partnership with the Koori community ( Message Stick Koori Court, 2005 ) . The members of the Koori Court comprise community leaders, a magistrate and an senior of the community. Tests of circle condemning in different countries of Australia have been successful. Circle sentencing has reduced the barriers that presently exist between Courts and led to betterments in the degree of support for Aboriginal wrongdoers ( Lawlink NSW: 3. Aboriginal Customary Law, 2000 ) . In add-on, the Lardil Peoples v. State of Queensland [ 2004 ] FCA 298 demonstrates the turning acknowledgment of importance of organic structures of H2O to the Autochthonal Australians. The traditional proprietors ( the Lardil, Yangkaal, Kaidilt and Gangalidda peoples ) were able to show a strong religious and cultural connexion to the organic structures of H2O and, hence granted native rubric. ( Hamper, 2009, p.61Legal surveies Preliminary 3rd edition Publisher: Pearson 2009 Writers: David Hamper et.al, Bruce Derwent, John boesenberg, Michael Hayes, Nerida thiering ) There are many conflictions between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander customary jurisprudence and Australian felon jurisprudence. Many of the traditions accepted in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander civilizations are offenses in Australian common jurisprudence. For illustration, For illustration, in 2002, a 50 year-old year-old Arnhem Land adult male, Jackie Pascoe, was sentenced to one-day gaol for holding improper sexual dealingss with his 17-year-old bride.[ 1 ]This was due to Aboriginal traditions allowing dealingss with his underage promised married woman ( SSABSA, Cultural Punishment, 2005 ) . Contemporary Australian jurisprudence relies on isolation from the community alternatively of physical penalty. The condemnable justness system sends people to imprison, sometimes for old ages and old ages. That means that they can non be with their household and can non travel to work. However, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander customary jurisprudence is dependent on countenances such as retaliation, test by ordeal, inquest and other signifiers of penalty. European jurisprudence resents tribal penalty for the ground that there is a important hazard that penalty would affect improper physical force and the tribunals can non excuse improper Acts of the Apostless. A instance heard in 2004, in the Northern Territory Supreme Court granted bond to Anthony, a traditional Walpiri adult male who had murdered his married woman. Elders from Lajamanu informed the NT Supreme Court about the penalty he will have when Anthony returns to Lajamanu ; he would be speared in the leg about four times by the household of the adult female he was accused of killing. Anthony consented to Revenge saying that he may be cursed by Aboriginal thaumaturgy that may kill him or his household may be in danger if he did non undergo the traditional penalty. However, Chief Justice Brian Martin ruled that the penalty would ensue in dangerous bodily injury, and therefore be improper in footings of NT statute law. On the 23rd of March, 2004, Jeremy Anthony was arrested at Katherine Hospital after intervention for a broken arm and leg hurts. He was allegedly in breach of his bond conditions when he visited Lajamanu to undergo tribal penalty ( Mildren, 2003 ) . This instance portrays the uninterrupted job that occurs when traditional Aboriginal people are caught between two Torahs: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander customary jurisprudence and Australian felon jurisprudence. To this twenty-four hours, traditional autochthonal Australians follow customary jurisprudence, therefore normally transgressing Australian condemnable jurisprudence. The two sytems of jurisprudence can non co-exist aboard each other as Aboriginal people may confront two penalties from each of the sytems which breaches Sentencing Act 1995. Australian common jurisprudence has accepted that a individual can non be punished twice for the same offence.If an wrongdoer is sent to gaol, the wrongdoer will acquire his/her penalty by the customary jurisprudence system, either before acquiring sentenced or after. However, this is non merely as this will burthen Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people with another penalty from one of the two systems.

7 jobs that are incredibly underpaidÂÂ

7 jobs that are incredibly underpaid   We live in a world where not all jobs- or salaries- are created equal. While some jobs are glamorous and come with equally glamorous paychecks, others offer more humble salaries- and some of them just might surprise you. According to a recent article on Glassdoor.com, the average American worker is underpaid by approximately $7,500- this translates to salaries that are roughly 13% less than their potential market values. This is attributable to a variety of factors, from job market conditions and supply vs. demand of available talent to the tendency of some new employees to not negotiate for higher salaries when starting new jobs.Let’s take a closer look at 7 jobs that are incredibly underpaid, often despite having very important responsibilities.1. Medical assistantMedical assistants work directly under the guidance of doctors and nurses, and have a host of important responsibilities including maintaining medical records, prepping patients for exams, and administering medicat ions. That said, they don’t typically command large salaries. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the mean average wage for medical assistants is $32,850.2. Web developerIf you’re looking to break into the web developer profession, you may find a wealth of opportunities across industries, and even across borders as international projects abound. That said, the growing supply of talented web developers both around the United States and abroad has adversely impacted salaries. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the mean average wage for web developers is $72,150.3. Social workerSocial workers are typically dedicated and qualified individuals who provide important support services to populations in need. Despite being a rewarding and commendable profession, the average social worker is not earning a huge payday. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the mean average wage for social workers is approximately $59,410.4. Licensed practical nurse (LPN) Nurses are incredibly important professionals who handle a wide array of critical tasks in a variety of healthcare settings, and are essential personnel for handling patient needs. That said, they typically make far less than their colleagues who are doctors or registered nurses (RNs). According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the mean average wage for LPNs is $44,840.5. Pharmacy technicianWhen you’re purchasing prescription medications at your local pharmacy, you’re likely to encounter a pharmacy tech at the front lines. These workers mix, measure, count out, and label medications as well as interact directly with customers. However, pharmacy techs don’t command the same salaries as the pharmacists they work beside. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the mean average wage for pharmacy techs is $32,170.6. Veterinary technicianWhen your pet needs a checkup or isn’t feeling well, you can count on a vet tech to help you out when you first arrive at the veterinarian’s office. They’re responsible for a host of things that help keep veterinarian practices running smoothly, including performing medical tests, preparing serums and vaccines, taking and preparing samples, and maintaining charts and medical equipment. Vet techs likely aren’t in the field to get rich quick; the mean average wage according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics is $33,870.7. Emergency medical technician (EMT)Few can argue about the importance of EMTs- when an accident or medical emergency occurs, they are often the first on the scene, and assess injuries, administer aid, and transport individuals to hospitals and medical facilities. Despite their incredible importance in saving lives, they just don’t command big salaries. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the mean average wage for EMTs is $36,110.As you can see, not all employees are compensated equally. The 7 jobs listed here may offer professional fulfillment and satisfaction, depending on one’s job-related goals, but they will probably not set you on a road to riches. If you’re on the hunt for a new job and salary is a big factor for you, use this information to help guide you towards- and away- from certain positions.

CONTRACT LAW ASSESSED COURSEWORK Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

CONTRACT LAW ASSESSED COURSEWORK - Term Paper Example The Postal Rule The foremost instance of the Postal Rule was established in the case of Adams v Lindsell  (1818), which established the following point: â€Å"  it would be impossible to complete any contract through the post; if the defendants were not bound by their offer until the answer was received, then the plaintiffs would not be bound until they had received word that the defendants had received their acceptance, and this could go on indefinitely† The judge gave his point, where he describes what a postal rule is. The Postal Rule is an exception to the common rule of offer and acceptance. Under the common practice of contract formation and application, the acceptance takes place only when it is communicated to the offerror. Until and unless the acceptance has not been communicated, a contract cannot be formed between the two parties. However, the Postal Rule has a different practice when it comes to the communication of the acceptance of the offerree. Under the Pos tal Rule, the acceptance takes place when the letter is posted, which is contrary to what is usually practiced under the Contract Law in Common Law countries. In the case of Dunlop v Higgins (1848), the law was laid down which confirmed the earlier judgment in the Adam’s case, where it was mentioned that â€Å"posting of a letter confirming the acceptance involves the binding of the contract, even if the letter never arrived to the offerror†. There are theories which go against this judgment, especially in the days of emailing when sending and receiving mail has become lightning fast, and therefore, this rule should stand to be invalid and obsolete, as we shall discuss later in this paper. Let us look at the philosophy of the Postal Rule, and try to gauge the reasons behind the implantation of such a rule as an exception to the most basic principles of contract law. The Postal Rule was established to ease the communication lags during the 19th century between the offer re and the offerror. A post mail used to take quite a lot of time in order to reach the other party, and in performance of time bound contracts, the general rule of acceptance only valid when communicated became difficult to enforce upon the parties, as it would take days and weeks to communicate the acceptance, and in such time the whole purpose of the contract would melt down and become impotent. (1879) Therefore, in order to curb the drawbacks of the post mail communication, the Postal Rule was established, which eased the general rule of acceptance, and allowed the parties, to enter into contracts without fulfilling the need to communicate the other of his/her acceptance by mail, which included the posting of the acceptance letter and the subsequent time attached to it in order for the acceptance to reach the offerror. The rule came into play to reduce the time taken to communicate the order of acceptance, and now by just mailing the acceptance, and not having to wait until the mail was received by the offerre, the contract had been formed. The rational behind the postal rule is that it encourages contracting by parties at a distance by making the person in the position of giving an acceptance just as secure as if the contract was being made face to face. Along with this proposition, another point which helped in the cause of its establishment was that it was a faster way of contracting between the

Animal Behavior on their Natal Territory Assignment

Animal Behavior on their Natal Territory - Assignment Example The reproductive success of a female mammal depends on a few factors such as safe territory, brood feeding area, and resources such as food availability (Stockley & Bro-Jorgenson, 2011, pg344). The male members of the mammalian species, on the other hand, wander far away from the nest in search of possible female mates who defend their own territories. Thus, we can say that the reproductive success among mammals depends largely on its female members. However, males of avian species are the ones that remain on or near the natal territory since in case of birds it is the quality of the† habitat that the male defends that determines the reproductive success† (Hill,1988,p379). Reproductive success among avian species depends on the male members and on the provisions available for the brood and attraction of female birds in the territory defended by the males. Therefore, remaining within or near the natal territorial range in case of male birds is more beneficial since they are able to attract females while in case of mammal males, remaining near natal territory is not beneficial since the reproductive success depends solely on the female members of mammalian species. 2.In  their  classic  paper  on  mating  systems,  Steve  Emlen  and  Lew  Oring  suggested  that  two  ecological  factors  could  promote  the  evolution  of  monogamy:  a  high  degree  of  synchrony  in  reproductive  cycling  within  a  population  and  a  highly  dispersed  distribution  of  receptive  females.  Try  to  reconstruct  the  logic  of  these  predictions  and  then  make  counterarguments  to  the  effect  that  synchronized  breeding  could  facilitate  the acquisition  of  multiple  mates  while  a  relatively  dense  population  of  receptive  females  might  actually  promote  monogamy.  

What has happened to careers To what extent can and should HRM be a Dissertation

What has happened to careers To what extent can and should HRM be a part of career management - Dissertation Example Since the world is changing at a rapid pace, the economic, cultural, political and technological changes have an immense impact upon the world of work. Moreover, due to uncertainties that accompany with them, these changes can have an adverse effect on the career and lives of the people.In the present competitive era, careers have become too challenging than they used to be. This means that an attempt has to be made to manage the careers. The term career can be defined as the sequence of the job related roles and positions, activities and experiences that are encountered by the person (Anderson & Et. Al., 2002). The major objective of the proposed study is related to the career management. The study will try to focus on the research questions which would look to address the existing scenario regarding careers along with to what extent HRM (Human Resource Management) can or should be a part of career management. Through this proposed research paper it is intended to identify the role of the HRM in career management. Various steps of career management process involve career exploration, development of the career goals and the use of various strategies in order to achieve the career goals. The question that now arises is whether the career management is related to the employee’s development and the performance. For this purpose the relationship that exists among the different aspects of the career management steps as well as the development behaviour of the employee need to be gauged. In this regards, the employees can provide information by considering their personal characteristics, career management strategies, the support of their managers for the career development and their willingness to participate in the development activities. On the other hand, the managers can appraise the performance of the employees and the development behaviour. In this regard, it can be identified that the managers support development. Distance from career goals brings about significant differences in the willingness of the employees to participate in the development activities along with development behaviour (Noe, 1996). It has been argued by the authors and the researchers that the career management programs in formal organisations are part of the firms’ overall human resource strategies. The career management programs are adopted by the organisation in a belief that the performance of the individuals will be enhanced and it will increase the employee’s commitment. If the career management systems are implemented without enough preparation of the organisation, then it might result to ineffective and misleading programs. If the organisation is involved in the individual’s career planning activities, then it might help to reduce the uncertainty that the employees face. It will also assist them in planning and help them in yielding positive results for the organisations (Portwood, 1987). With regards to the question about the exist ing scenario regarding careers, it can be denoted that there has been little changes in the world of work and the career of the people. Support for changing the focus upon the career stems from the psychologically grounded ideas about people as sculptors of their own careers. It also comes from the fact that the person themselves are the creator of the personal meaning in their lives (Arthur & Et. Al., 1999). The HRM systems of the organisation that would include the workforce planning and staffing procedures, career management and the training and development efforts have to be consistent with the strategic plans of the firms. If the objective of the company is to downsize and shed the business, then in that case the HRM system and the related career programs will be concerned

Advantages and Disadvantages of Biometrics

Advantages and Disadvantages of Biometrics ABSTRACT Organisations have goals and therefore acquire assets to ensure these goals are met and the continuity guaranteed. Financial sector while trying to promote convenient methods such as online banking and use of ATM for their customers to access their money strives to ensure only the right person has access to the account. Also, military and national security services store high sensitive and critical information that must only be accessed by specific individual thereby deploying security measures to keep this tradition. However, achieving these goals largely depends on securing and controlling the assets as documented which means only authorised individuals have access to these environments and eventually the assets. Sequel to the importance of access control, different security techniques have been deployed to safeguard these assets which ranges from PINs and passwords, ID cards, smart card est. Vulnerabilities to these methods have lead to the recent surge in biometrics industry as many believe this is the future. Reasons such that the physical presence of the authorized person is needed at the point of access and also, the fact that it is unique and almost impossible to duplicate emphasis the benefit of biometrics and explain its glooming popularity. However like any other security methods, biometrics has limitations and threats which can impact its effectiveness and efficiency. It is not suitable for every application and can be a very wrong choice for certain applications. Therefore, it is essential to manage these limitations and threats properly to enhance the success factor of biometrics. Finally, it is important for any sector deploying biometrics to understand the various issues associated with biometrics such as privacy, standards and what the law requires of biometrics. CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Organizations strive to secure their assets and provide means of controlling access to these assets. This process requires identification and authorization to ensure the right person is accessing the right asset. Over the years, traditional methods of authentication, mainly passwords and personal identification numbers (PINs) have been popularly used. Recently, swipe card and PINs have been deployed for more security since one is something you have and the latter something you know. However, these methods still have vulnerabilities as swipe card can be stolen. Also, bad management of passwords has left people writing them on papers and desks or simply choosing easy and general words for quick remembrance which expose the password to intruders. More recently, stronger identification and authorization technologies that can assure a person is who he claims to be are becoming prominent and biometrics can be classified to this category. Biometric technology makes use of a persons physiological or behavioral characteristics in identification. Every human being is unique in nature and possesses physical parts completely different from any other person. The September 11, 2001 terrorist attack did not help security concerns as governments and organizations all around the world especially the border security agencies have greatly embraced this human recognition technology. As both private and public entities continue to search for a more reliable identification and authentication methods, biometrics has been the choice and considered the future. WHAT IS BIOMETRICS? Biometrics refers to the automatic identifications of a person based on his or her physiological or behavioral characteristics (Chirillo and Blaul 2003, p. 2). It is an authorization method that verifies or identifies a user based on what they are before authorizing access. The search for a more reliable authorization method to secure assets has lead to the revelation of biometrics and many organizations have shown interest in the technology. Two main types of biometrics have been used mainly physical and behavioral. A physical biometrics is a part of a persons body while, a behavioral biometric is something that a person does (Lockie 2002, p. 8). He added that although there are some more unusual biometrics which may be used in the future, including a persons unique smell, the shape of their ear or even the way they talk, the main biometrics being measured include fingerprints, hand geometry, retina scan, iris scan, facial location or recognition (all physical), voice recognition, signature, keystroke pattern and gait (Behavioral). However, it has been argued by Liu and Silverman (2001) that different applications require different biometrics as there is no supreme or best biometric technology. HISTORY OF BIOMETRICS According to Chirillo and Blaul (2003, p. 3) the term biometrics is derived from the Greek words bio (life) and metric (to measure). China is among the first known to practice biometrics back in the fourteenth century as reported by the Portuguese historian Joao de Barros. It was called member-printing where the childrens palms as well as the footprints were stamped on paper with ink to identify each baby. Alphonse Bertillon, a Paris based anthropologist and police desk clerk was trying to find a way of identifying convicts in the 1890s decided to research on biometrics. He came up with measuring body lengths and was relevant till it was proved to be prone to error as many people shared the same measurement. The police started using fingerprinting developed based on the Chinese methods used century before by Richard Edward Henry, who was working at the Scotland Yard. Raina, Orlans and Woodward (2003, p. 25-26) stated references to biometrics as a concept could be traced back to over a thousand years in East Asia where potters placed their fingerprints on their wares as an early form of brand identity. They also pointed Egypts Nile Valley where traders were formally identified based on physical characteristics such as eye color, complexion and also height. The information were used by merchant to identify trusted traders whom they had successfully transacted business with in the past. Kapil et al also made references to the Bible, first pointing to the faith Gileadites had in their biometric system as reported in The Book of Judges (12:5-6) that the men of Gilead identified enemy in their midst by making suspected Ephraimites say Shibboleth for they could not pronounce it right. The second reference is to The Book of Genesis (27:11-28) where Jacob pretended to be Esau by putting goat skins on his hands and back of his neck so his skin would feel h airy to his blind, aged fathers touch. This illustrates a case of biometric spoofing and false acceptance. They finally wrote Biometrics as a commercial, modern technology has been around since the early 1970s when the first commercially available device was brought to market (p. 26). HOW BIOMETRICS SYSTEMS WORK A biometric system is essentially a pattern-recognition system that makes a personal identification by determining the authenticity of a specific physiological or behavioral characteristics possessed by the user (Blaul 2003, p.3). Biometrics has so far been developed to work in two ways mainly verification and identification. Verification systems are designed to give answer to the question, Am I who I claim to be? by requiring that a user claim an identity in order for a biometric comparison to be performed. The user provides data, which is then compared to his or her enrolled biometric data. Identification systems gives answer to the question, who am I? and do not require a user to claim an identity as the provided biometric data is compared to data from a number of users to find a match (Nanavati 2002, p. 12). An illustration of a scenario using an identifying biometrics system is given below and thus gives an answer to the question Who am I? In October 1998 in the United Kingdom, Newham Council introduced face recognition software to 12 town centre cameras with the sole purpose of decreasing street robbery. Images are compared against a police database of over 100 convicted street robbers known to be active in the previous 12 weeks. In August 2001, 527,000 separate faces were detected and operators confirmed 90 matches against the database. Where a face is not identified with any in the database, the image is deleted; if a match is found a human operator checks the result. The introduction of face recognition technology to Newham city centre saw a 34% decrease in street robbery. The system has not led directly to any arrests, which suggests that its effect is largely due to the deterrence/displacement of crime. The face recognition system has been widely publicised by the council and 93% of residents support its introduction (Postnote Nov 2001, p. 1). The case study below illustrates a verifying biometrics system and supply answers to the question Am I who I claim to be? The US Immigration and Naturalization Service Passenger Accelerated Service System (INSPASS) has been introduced at eight airports in order to provide a quick immigration processing for authorised frequent flyers entering the US and Canada. On arrival at an airport, a traveller inserts a card that carries a record of their hand geometry into the INSPASS kiosk and places their hand on a biometric reader. A computer cross-references the information stored on the card at registration with the live hand geometry scan. The complete process takes less than 30 seconds. If the scans match, the traveller can proceed to customs; if not, travellers are referred to an Immigration Inspector. There are more than 45,000 active INSPASS users with, on average, 20,000 automated immigration inspections conducted each month (Postnote Nov 2001, p. 1). Verifying system is often referred to as a one-to-one process and generally takes less processing time compared to the identifying systems. This is due to the fact that in identifying systems, a user is compared to all users in the database (one-to-many). Verifying systems are also more accurate since they only have to match a users data against his or her stored data and do not need hundreds, thousands or even millions of comparisons like the identifying systems. However, it is important for an organization to decide the type appropriate for the applications. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The research methodology designed for this dissertation is mainly the qualitative approach. A quantitative approach has been overlooked due to limited time as designing surveys, distribution take time and response time could not be predicted. Therefore, my effort will be concentrated on critically reviewing previous literatures in order to acquire an overview of, and intakes on the topic. For more details, Journals, Books, Publications, Documentaries and previous dissertations related to the topic will be reviewed, compared and analyzed. The objectives will be achieved by purely reviewing literatures and previous researches and the literatures critically analyzed by comparing information obtained from different sources. Findings, recommendations and conclusions will be made from the analysis. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The aim of this research is to critically analyse biometric security as an emerging and booming industry by examining the positives and negatives and providing ways of improving the method effectively and most importantly efficiently. Since biometrics applies to many applications, access control will be the main focus of this dessertation. Also, issues such as privacy, laws governing biometrics and standards will be examined. The main objectives of this research are; To review biometric security and issues related to it. To evaluate the threats, advantages and disadvantages of biometrics. To propose ways of improving the effectiveness and efficiency of biometrics from previous researches. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter is aimed at critically reviewing and analysis of numerous works of researchers in the area of biometrics, threats to biometrics, advantages and disadvantages and ways of improving biometrics efficiency in access control. The effect of privacy (human rights) and the need to conform to biometrics standards will also be examined and reviewed. DEFINITION OF BIOMETRICS According to Jain, Ross and Pankanti (2006, p. 125), one great concern in our vastly interconnected society is establishing identity. Systems need to know Is he who he claims he is, Is she authorized to use this resource? or simply who is this? Therefore, a wide range of systems require reliable personal recognition schemes to either verify or identify of an individual seeking access to their services. The purpose of that scheme is to ensure that the rendered services are accessed by only the authorized and not any intruder or imposer (Ross 2004, p. 1). Biometric recognition, or simply biometrics, refers to the automatic recognition of individuals based on their physiological and, or behavioral characteristics (Jain, 2004 p. 1). Woodward (2003, p. 27) cited biometric industry guru Ben Millers 1987 biometric definition: Biometric technologies are automated methods of verifying or recognizing the identity of a living person based on a physical or behavioral characteristic. Shoniregun and Crosier (2008, p. 10) provided several definitions of biometrics which include: Biometrics is the development of statistical and mathematical methods applicable to data analysis problems in the biological science. Biometrics = identification/verification of persons based on the unique physiological or behavioral features of humans. Biometrics is the measurement and matching of biological characteristics such as fingerprint images, hand geometry, facial recognition, etc. Biometrics is strongly linked to a stored identity to the physical person. Nevertheless the various definitions, it can be seen that the science of biometrics is based on the fact that no two people are the same and this has a significant influence on its reliability and success factor. THE BIOMETRICS INDUSTRY According to Lockie (2002, p. 10), the biometric industry did not really get established until the middle of the twentieth century. The researchers at that particular time were investigating whether various human parts and characteristics, such as the iris or the voice, could be used to identify an individual. This was made public by publishing papers and as a considerable number of these strands of research began to form a piece, the biometrics industry as we know it these days was established. As organization search for more secure authentication methods for user access, e-commerce, and other security applications, biometrics is gaining increasing attention (Liu 2001, p.27). Higgins, Orlan and Woodward (2003, p. xxiii ), emphasized that even though biometrics have not become an essential part of all systems requiring controlled access, the emerging industry has come a long way from its modern founding in 1972 with the installation of a commercial finger measurement device on Wall Street. He made reference to the highly respected MIT Technology Review called biometrics one of the top ten emerging technologies that will change the world. The growth in biometric industries is reflected in the numbers. The trio cited Rick Noton, the executive director of the International Biometric Industry Association (IBIA), who reported in the Biometrics 2002 Conference in London, United Kingdom, that the industrys trade association has indicated the surge in biometric revenues over recent years. From $20 million in 1996, it has increased to $200 million in 2001 and Norton believes they will increase as the years pass on significantly in 5 years time. Also, a forecast made by the International Biometric Group (IBG), which is a biometric consulting and integration firm located in New York City, estimate that biometric revenues totaled $399 million in 2000 and will increase to $1.9 billion by 2005. Both IBIA and IBG believe that the private sector will be responsible for much of the growth. These give evidence of the relevance of biometrics in organizations in modern times. BIOMETRICS AND ACCESS CONTROL Over the years, biometrics has evolved rapidly and many vertical markets such as governments, transport, financial sectors, security, public justice and safety, healthcare and many more have adopted biometrics. Due to this wide range of users, biometrics has been deployed to many applications. Biometrics has been of high benefit to organization as they seek a reliable security method to safeguard assets. Fully understanding how biometrics work, it can be said that the ultimate aim of applying biometrics in the vertical markets listed above is to control access to a resource irrespective of the system used whether a verifying or an identifying process It has been stated by S. Nanavati, Thieme and R. Nanavati (2002, p. 14), that biometric systems are deployed for two primary purposes which are physical and logical access. LOGICAL VERSUS PHYSICAL ACCESS Physical access systems monitors, restricts, or grant movement of a person or object into or out of a specific area (Thieme 2002, p. 14). This could be implemented to control entry into rooms or even the main building. Popular examples are control towers, bank vaults, server rooms and many other sensitive rooms requiring controlled access. In physical access, biometrics replaces the use of keys, PIN codes access cards and security guards although any of these could be combined with biometrics as a complementation. Common physical access application is time and attendance. Thieme also gave a definition of logical access systems as one that monitor, restrict or grant access to data or information listing examples such as logging into a PC, accessing data stored on a network, accessing an account, or authenticating a transaction. In this case, biometrics replaces and can be designed to complement PINs, passwords and also tokens. Basic biometric functionality precisely acquiring and comparing of biometric data is often identical in both physical and logical systems. For example, the same iris scan data can be used for both doorway and desktop applications. Thieme explained that the only difference between the two is the external system into which the biometric functionality is integrated. The biometric functionality is integrated into a larger system. This applies for both physical and logical access system and actions such as access to any desktop application or access to a room via a doorway are effected by a biometric match. However, not every system can be classified as physical or logical access as the end result does not indicate access to data or a physical location and the result therefore may be to investigate more. An ATM secured by biometrics allows access to money, a physical entity. This is made possible by allowing the user logical access to his or her data. In the example above, the application is even difficult to classify as either physical or logical. Thieme (2002, p. 15) suggested that the distinction between physical and logical access systems is a valuable tool in understanding biometric. He noted that key criteria such accuracy, fallback procedures, privacy requirements, costs, response time and complexity of integration all vary effectively when moving from logical to physical access. WHAT ARE BIOMETRIC STANDARDS Stapleton (2003, p. 167) defined a standard in a general term as a published document, developed by a recognized authority, which defines a set of policies and practices, technical or security requirements, techniques or mechanisms, or describes some other abstract concept or model. The growth of the biometric industry has been relatively slowed by the absence of industry wide standards and this has also impeded various types of biometric deployment. Nanavati (2002, p. 277) stated that the relative youth of the technology in use, coupled with the disunified nature of the industry, has impacted the developments of standards resulting in a sporadic and frequently redundant standards. Nanavati also noted that the live-scan fingerprint imaging is the only segment of biometric industry with widely accepted and adopted standards. Due to this absence of biometric standards, some institutions have been concerned of being tied into technologies they actually believed as not mature or even dev elopmental. However in an effort to actively address the standards issue, the biometric industry has finalized some blueprints and the process of getting industries to accept these standards is ongoing WHY IS STANDARDIZATION NECESSARY? The high rate of biometric development and rapid growth in adoption of biometric technologies in recent years has resulted in ever-increasing levels of what is expected in terms of accuracy, adaptability, and reliability in an ever-wider range of applications. Due to the adoption of biometric technologies in large-scale national and international applications, involving a potentially unlimited range of stakeholders, Farzin Deravi (2008, p. 483) stated that it has become essential to address these expectations by ensuring agreed common frameworks for implementation and evaluation of biometric technologies through standardization activities. Majority of biometric systems, including both the hardware and software are made and sold by the owner of the patent at this stage in their development. They are being proprietary in numerous aspects including the manner in which biometric devices and systems as a whole communicate with applications, the method of extracting features from a biometric sample, and among many more, the method of storing and retrieving biometric data. This resulted in many companies in most cases, being wedded to a particular technology, once they agree to implement that particular technology. Nanavati (2002, p. 278) stated that in order to incorporate a new technology, the companies are required to rebuild their system from scratch upward, and in some cases duplicating much of the deployment effort. Deravi (2008 p. 483) noted that the need for interoperability of biometric systems across national boundaries has implied a rapid escalation of standardization efforts to the international arena, stating that the sense of urgency for the need for standardization has been the priority of internal security concerns. The industry wide or universal adoption of biometric standard will not make biometric technology interoperable at least, to the state where an old device can be replaced by a new device without rebuilding the system. However, Nanavati (2002 p. 278) argued the core algorithms through which vendors locate and extract biometric data are very unlikely to be interoperable or standardized, the reason being that these algorithms represents the basis of most vendors intellectual property. Numerous reasons are responsible for the motivation towards standardization. These include the desire for reducing the overall cost of deploying biometrics technologies and optimize the reliability of biometric systems, to reduce the risk of deploying solutions to biometric problems, to ensure in the area of encryption and file format, that the basic building blocks of biometric data management have been developed based on best practice by industry professionals. Nanavati (2002 p. 278) concluded that standards ensure that, in the future, biometric technology will be developed and deployed in accordance with generally accepted principles of information technology. EXISTING BIOMETRIC STANDARDS Shoniregun and Crosier (2008 p. 22) stated that the evolving interest and developments have made developments of standards a necessity with the sole aim of allowing compatibility of different systems. The detailed standards in the Biometrics Resource Centre (2002) report are summarised below: Common Biometric Exchange File Format (CBEFF): The Common Biometric Exchange File Format (CBEFF) sets a standard for the data elements essential in supporting biometric technology in a common way irrespective of the application involved or the domain in use. It makes data interchange between systems and their components easier, while promoting interoperability applications, programs as well as systems based on biometrics. INCITS MI-Biometrics Technical Committee: The committee which was established by the Executive Board of the International Committee for Information Technology standards (INCITS) with the responsibility to ensure a focused and reasonably comprehensive approach in the United States for the rapid development and approval of previous national and international generic biometric standards (Shoniregun ad Crosier 2008, p. 22) BioAPI Specification (Version 1.1): The BioAPI standard defines the architecture for biometric systems integration in a single computer system. (Deravi 2008, p. 490). The Bio API specification has been one of the most popular standards efforts since it was formed in April 1998 according to Nanavati (2002, p. 279). Nnavati stated that the standard was formed to develop an API that is both widely accepted and widely available while being compatible with various biometric technologies. Other general standards available are Human Recognition Module (HRS), ANSI/NIST-ITL 1-2000, American Association for Motor Vehicle Administration and American National Standards Institute (ANSI) which specifies the acceptable security requirements necessary for effective management of biometric data especially for the financial services industry. BRITISH BIOMETRICS STANDARDS The British Standards Institution (BSI) commenced work in June 2004 on biometrics standards and since then, has published according to Shoniregun and Crosier (2008, p. 24) a set of four new BS ISO/IEC 19794 STANDARDS, reported to have covered the science of biometrics, and using biological characteristics in identifying individuals. The objective of publishing these standards is to promote interoperability between the several products in the market. BS ISO/IEC 19784-2:2007: This standard defines the interface to an archive Biometric Function Provider (BFP). The interface assumes that the collected biometrics data will be managed as a database, irrespective of its physical realization. Crosier (2008, p. 24) defined the physical realization as smartcards, token, memory sticks, files on hard drives and any other kind of memory can be handled via an abstraction layer presenting a database interface.) BS ISO/IEC 19795-2:2006: According to Shoniregun (2008, p. 25), this standard provides recommendations and requirements on collection of data, analysis as well as reporting specific to two types of evaluation (scenario evaluation and technology evaluation). BS ISO/IEC 19795-2:2006 further specifies the requirements in the development and full description of protocols for scenario and technology evaluations and also, in executing and reporting biometric evaluations. BS ISO/IEC 24709-1:2007: ISO/IEC 24709-1:2007 specifies the concepts, framework, test methods and criteria required to test conformity of biometric products claiming conformance to BioAPI (ISO/IEC 19784-1). (www.iso.org). Crosier (2008, p. 25) stated ISO/IEC 24709-1:2007 specifies three conformance testing models which allows conformance testing of each of the BioAPI components mainly a framework, an application and a BSP. BS ISO/IEC 24709-2:2007: The standard BS ISO/IEC 247 defines a number of test assertions composed in the assertion language explicitly required in ISO/IEC 24709-1. The assertions allow a user to test the conformance of any biometric server producer (BSP) that claims to be a conforming implementation of that International Standard to ISO/IEC 19784-1 (BioAPI 2.0) (www.iso.org). BIOMETRICS AND PRIVACY The fact that biometric technologies are based on measuring physiological or behavioral and archiving these data has raised concerns on privacy risks, and also raised discussion on the role biometrics play when it comes to privacy. As stated by Nanavati (2002, p. 237), increase in the use of biometric technology in the public sector, workplace and even at home has raised the following questions: What are the main privacy concerns relating to biometric usage? What kinds of biometric deployments need stronger protections to avoid invading privacy? What biometric technologies are more prone to privacy-invasive usage? What kinds of protections are required to ensure biometrics are used in a non privacy-invasive way? Woodward (2003, p. 197) cited President Clintons speech in his commencement address at Morgan State University in 1997: The right to privacy is one of our most cherished freedomsWe must develop new protections for privacy in the face of new technological reality. Recently, Biometrics has been increasingly deployed to improve security and a very important tool to combat terrorism. Privacy issue is central to biometrics and many people believe that deploying biometrics poses a considerable level of risk to human rights, even though some are of the opinion that biometrics actually protect privacy. Human factors influence the success of a biometric-based identification system to a great extent. The ease as well as comfort in interaction with a biometric system contributes to how people accept it. Jain, Ross and Prabhakar (2004 p. 24) stated an example of a biometric system being able to measure the characteristic of a users without touching, such as those using voice, face, or iris, and concluded that it may be perceived to be a more user-friendly and hygienic system by the users. They added that on the other hand, biometric characteristics not requiring user participation or interaction can be recorded without the knowledge of the user, and this is perceived as a threat to human privacy by many individuals. According to Sim (2009, p. 81), biometrics compared to other security technologies has significant impacts on users privacy (Civil Liberties). It can protect privacy when deployed in an appropriate manner; but when misused, it can result in loss of privacy. ADVANTAGES OF BIOMETRIC OVER TRADITIONAL METHODS Password and PINs have been the most frequently used authentication method. Their use involves controlling access to a building or a room, securing access to computers, network, the applications on the personal computers and many more. In some higher security applications, handheld tokens such as key fobs and smart cards have been deployed. Due to some problems related to these methods, the suitability and reliability of these authentication technologies have been questioned especially in this modern world with modern applications. Biometrics offer some benefits compare to these authentication technologies. INCREASED SECURITY Biometric technology can provide a higher degree of security compared to traditional authentication methods. Chirillo (2003 p. 2) stated that biometrics is preferred over traditional methods for many reasons which include the fact that the physical presence of the authorized person is required at the point of identification. This means that only the authorized person has access to the resources. Effort by people to manage several passwords has left many choosing easy or general words, with considerable number writing the Advantages and Disadvantages of Biometrics Advantages and Disadvantages of Biometrics ABSTRACT Organisations have goals and therefore acquire assets to ensure these goals are met and the continuity guaranteed. Financial sector while trying to promote convenient methods such as online banking and use of ATM for their customers to access their money strives to ensure only the right person has access to the account. Also, military and national security services store high sensitive and critical information that must only be accessed by specific individual thereby deploying security measures to keep this tradition. However, achieving these goals largely depends on securing and controlling the assets as documented which means only authorised individuals have access to these environments and eventually the assets. Sequel to the importance of access control, different security techniques have been deployed to safeguard these assets which ranges from PINs and passwords, ID cards, smart card est. Vulnerabilities to these methods have lead to the recent surge in biometrics industry as many believe this is the future. Reasons such that the physical presence of the authorized person is needed at the point of access and also, the fact that it is unique and almost impossible to duplicate emphasis the benefit of biometrics and explain its glooming popularity. However like any other security methods, biometrics has limitations and threats which can impact its effectiveness and efficiency. It is not suitable for every application and can be a very wrong choice for certain applications. Therefore, it is essential to manage these limitations and threats properly to enhance the success factor of biometrics. Finally, it is important for any sector deploying biometrics to understand the various issues associated with biometrics such as privacy, standards and what the law requires of biometrics. CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Organizations strive to secure their assets and provide means of controlling access to these assets. This process requires identification and authorization to ensure the right person is accessing the right asset. Over the years, traditional methods of authentication, mainly passwords and personal identification numbers (PINs) have been popularly used. Recently, swipe card and PINs have been deployed for more security since one is something you have and the latter something you know. However, these methods still have vulnerabilities as swipe card can be stolen. Also, bad management of passwords has left people writing them on papers and desks or simply choosing easy and general words for quick remembrance which expose the password to intruders. More recently, stronger identification and authorization technologies that can assure a person is who he claims to be are becoming prominent and biometrics can be classified to this category. Biometric technology makes use of a persons physiological or behavioral characteristics in identification. Every human being is unique in nature and possesses physical parts completely different from any other person. The September 11, 2001 terrorist attack did not help security concerns as governments and organizations all around the world especially the border security agencies have greatly embraced this human recognition technology. As both private and public entities continue to search for a more reliable identification and authentication methods, biometrics has been the choice and considered the future. WHAT IS BIOMETRICS? Biometrics refers to the automatic identifications of a person based on his or her physiological or behavioral characteristics (Chirillo and Blaul 2003, p. 2). It is an authorization method that verifies or identifies a user based on what they are before authorizing access. The search for a more reliable authorization method to secure assets has lead to the revelation of biometrics and many organizations have shown interest in the technology. Two main types of biometrics have been used mainly physical and behavioral. A physical biometrics is a part of a persons body while, a behavioral biometric is something that a person does (Lockie 2002, p. 8). He added that although there are some more unusual biometrics which may be used in the future, including a persons unique smell, the shape of their ear or even the way they talk, the main biometrics being measured include fingerprints, hand geometry, retina scan, iris scan, facial location or recognition (all physical), voice recognition, signature, keystroke pattern and gait (Behavioral). However, it has been argued by Liu and Silverman (2001) that different applications require different biometrics as there is no supreme or best biometric technology. HISTORY OF BIOMETRICS According to Chirillo and Blaul (2003, p. 3) the term biometrics is derived from the Greek words bio (life) and metric (to measure). China is among the first known to practice biometrics back in the fourteenth century as reported by the Portuguese historian Joao de Barros. It was called member-printing where the childrens palms as well as the footprints were stamped on paper with ink to identify each baby. Alphonse Bertillon, a Paris based anthropologist and police desk clerk was trying to find a way of identifying convicts in the 1890s decided to research on biometrics. He came up with measuring body lengths and was relevant till it was proved to be prone to error as many people shared the same measurement. The police started using fingerprinting developed based on the Chinese methods used century before by Richard Edward Henry, who was working at the Scotland Yard. Raina, Orlans and Woodward (2003, p. 25-26) stated references to biometrics as a concept could be traced back to over a thousand years in East Asia where potters placed their fingerprints on their wares as an early form of brand identity. They also pointed Egypts Nile Valley where traders were formally identified based on physical characteristics such as eye color, complexion and also height. The information were used by merchant to identify trusted traders whom they had successfully transacted business with in the past. Kapil et al also made references to the Bible, first pointing to the faith Gileadites had in their biometric system as reported in The Book of Judges (12:5-6) that the men of Gilead identified enemy in their midst by making suspected Ephraimites say Shibboleth for they could not pronounce it right. The second reference is to The Book of Genesis (27:11-28) where Jacob pretended to be Esau by putting goat skins on his hands and back of his neck so his skin would feel h airy to his blind, aged fathers touch. This illustrates a case of biometric spoofing and false acceptance. They finally wrote Biometrics as a commercial, modern technology has been around since the early 1970s when the first commercially available device was brought to market (p. 26). HOW BIOMETRICS SYSTEMS WORK A biometric system is essentially a pattern-recognition system that makes a personal identification by determining the authenticity of a specific physiological or behavioral characteristics possessed by the user (Blaul 2003, p.3). Biometrics has so far been developed to work in two ways mainly verification and identification. Verification systems are designed to give answer to the question, Am I who I claim to be? by requiring that a user claim an identity in order for a biometric comparison to be performed. The user provides data, which is then compared to his or her enrolled biometric data. Identification systems gives answer to the question, who am I? and do not require a user to claim an identity as the provided biometric data is compared to data from a number of users to find a match (Nanavati 2002, p. 12). An illustration of a scenario using an identifying biometrics system is given below and thus gives an answer to the question Who am I? In October 1998 in the United Kingdom, Newham Council introduced face recognition software to 12 town centre cameras with the sole purpose of decreasing street robbery. Images are compared against a police database of over 100 convicted street robbers known to be active in the previous 12 weeks. In August 2001, 527,000 separate faces were detected and operators confirmed 90 matches against the database. Where a face is not identified with any in the database, the image is deleted; if a match is found a human operator checks the result. The introduction of face recognition technology to Newham city centre saw a 34% decrease in street robbery. The system has not led directly to any arrests, which suggests that its effect is largely due to the deterrence/displacement of crime. The face recognition system has been widely publicised by the council and 93% of residents support its introduction (Postnote Nov 2001, p. 1). The case study below illustrates a verifying biometrics system and supply answers to the question Am I who I claim to be? The US Immigration and Naturalization Service Passenger Accelerated Service System (INSPASS) has been introduced at eight airports in order to provide a quick immigration processing for authorised frequent flyers entering the US and Canada. On arrival at an airport, a traveller inserts a card that carries a record of their hand geometry into the INSPASS kiosk and places their hand on a biometric reader. A computer cross-references the information stored on the card at registration with the live hand geometry scan. The complete process takes less than 30 seconds. If the scans match, the traveller can proceed to customs; if not, travellers are referred to an Immigration Inspector. There are more than 45,000 active INSPASS users with, on average, 20,000 automated immigration inspections conducted each month (Postnote Nov 2001, p. 1). Verifying system is often referred to as a one-to-one process and generally takes less processing time compared to the identifying systems. This is due to the fact that in identifying systems, a user is compared to all users in the database (one-to-many). Verifying systems are also more accurate since they only have to match a users data against his or her stored data and do not need hundreds, thousands or even millions of comparisons like the identifying systems. However, it is important for an organization to decide the type appropriate for the applications. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The research methodology designed for this dissertation is mainly the qualitative approach. A quantitative approach has been overlooked due to limited time as designing surveys, distribution take time and response time could not be predicted. Therefore, my effort will be concentrated on critically reviewing previous literatures in order to acquire an overview of, and intakes on the topic. For more details, Journals, Books, Publications, Documentaries and previous dissertations related to the topic will be reviewed, compared and analyzed. The objectives will be achieved by purely reviewing literatures and previous researches and the literatures critically analyzed by comparing information obtained from different sources. Findings, recommendations and conclusions will be made from the analysis. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The aim of this research is to critically analyse biometric security as an emerging and booming industry by examining the positives and negatives and providing ways of improving the method effectively and most importantly efficiently. Since biometrics applies to many applications, access control will be the main focus of this dessertation. Also, issues such as privacy, laws governing biometrics and standards will be examined. The main objectives of this research are; To review biometric security and issues related to it. To evaluate the threats, advantages and disadvantages of biometrics. To propose ways of improving the effectiveness and efficiency of biometrics from previous researches. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter is aimed at critically reviewing and analysis of numerous works of researchers in the area of biometrics, threats to biometrics, advantages and disadvantages and ways of improving biometrics efficiency in access control. The effect of privacy (human rights) and the need to conform to biometrics standards will also be examined and reviewed. DEFINITION OF BIOMETRICS According to Jain, Ross and Pankanti (2006, p. 125), one great concern in our vastly interconnected society is establishing identity. Systems need to know Is he who he claims he is, Is she authorized to use this resource? or simply who is this? Therefore, a wide range of systems require reliable personal recognition schemes to either verify or identify of an individual seeking access to their services. The purpose of that scheme is to ensure that the rendered services are accessed by only the authorized and not any intruder or imposer (Ross 2004, p. 1). Biometric recognition, or simply biometrics, refers to the automatic recognition of individuals based on their physiological and, or behavioral characteristics (Jain, 2004 p. 1). Woodward (2003, p. 27) cited biometric industry guru Ben Millers 1987 biometric definition: Biometric technologies are automated methods of verifying or recognizing the identity of a living person based on a physical or behavioral characteristic. Shoniregun and Crosier (2008, p. 10) provided several definitions of biometrics which include: Biometrics is the development of statistical and mathematical methods applicable to data analysis problems in the biological science. Biometrics = identification/verification of persons based on the unique physiological or behavioral features of humans. Biometrics is the measurement and matching of biological characteristics such as fingerprint images, hand geometry, facial recognition, etc. Biometrics is strongly linked to a stored identity to the physical person. Nevertheless the various definitions, it can be seen that the science of biometrics is based on the fact that no two people are the same and this has a significant influence on its reliability and success factor. THE BIOMETRICS INDUSTRY According to Lockie (2002, p. 10), the biometric industry did not really get established until the middle of the twentieth century. The researchers at that particular time were investigating whether various human parts and characteristics, such as the iris or the voice, could be used to identify an individual. This was made public by publishing papers and as a considerable number of these strands of research began to form a piece, the biometrics industry as we know it these days was established. As organization search for more secure authentication methods for user access, e-commerce, and other security applications, biometrics is gaining increasing attention (Liu 2001, p.27). Higgins, Orlan and Woodward (2003, p. xxiii ), emphasized that even though biometrics have not become an essential part of all systems requiring controlled access, the emerging industry has come a long way from its modern founding in 1972 with the installation of a commercial finger measurement device on Wall Street. He made reference to the highly respected MIT Technology Review called biometrics one of the top ten emerging technologies that will change the world. The growth in biometric industries is reflected in the numbers. The trio cited Rick Noton, the executive director of the International Biometric Industry Association (IBIA), who reported in the Biometrics 2002 Conference in London, United Kingdom, that the industrys trade association has indicated the surge in biometric revenues over recent years. From $20 million in 1996, it has increased to $200 million in 2001 and Norton believes they will increase as the years pass on significantly in 5 years time. Also, a forecast made by the International Biometric Group (IBG), which is a biometric consulting and integration firm located in New York City, estimate that biometric revenues totaled $399 million in 2000 and will increase to $1.9 billion by 2005. Both IBIA and IBG believe that the private sector will be responsible for much of the growth. These give evidence of the relevance of biometrics in organizations in modern times. BIOMETRICS AND ACCESS CONTROL Over the years, biometrics has evolved rapidly and many vertical markets such as governments, transport, financial sectors, security, public justice and safety, healthcare and many more have adopted biometrics. Due to this wide range of users, biometrics has been deployed to many applications. Biometrics has been of high benefit to organization as they seek a reliable security method to safeguard assets. Fully understanding how biometrics work, it can be said that the ultimate aim of applying biometrics in the vertical markets listed above is to control access to a resource irrespective of the system used whether a verifying or an identifying process It has been stated by S. Nanavati, Thieme and R. Nanavati (2002, p. 14), that biometric systems are deployed for two primary purposes which are physical and logical access. LOGICAL VERSUS PHYSICAL ACCESS Physical access systems monitors, restricts, or grant movement of a person or object into or out of a specific area (Thieme 2002, p. 14). This could be implemented to control entry into rooms or even the main building. Popular examples are control towers, bank vaults, server rooms and many other sensitive rooms requiring controlled access. In physical access, biometrics replaces the use of keys, PIN codes access cards and security guards although any of these could be combined with biometrics as a complementation. Common physical access application is time and attendance. Thieme also gave a definition of logical access systems as one that monitor, restrict or grant access to data or information listing examples such as logging into a PC, accessing data stored on a network, accessing an account, or authenticating a transaction. In this case, biometrics replaces and can be designed to complement PINs, passwords and also tokens. Basic biometric functionality precisely acquiring and comparing of biometric data is often identical in both physical and logical systems. For example, the same iris scan data can be used for both doorway and desktop applications. Thieme explained that the only difference between the two is the external system into which the biometric functionality is integrated. The biometric functionality is integrated into a larger system. This applies for both physical and logical access system and actions such as access to any desktop application or access to a room via a doorway are effected by a biometric match. However, not every system can be classified as physical or logical access as the end result does not indicate access to data or a physical location and the result therefore may be to investigate more. An ATM secured by biometrics allows access to money, a physical entity. This is made possible by allowing the user logical access to his or her data. In the example above, the application is even difficult to classify as either physical or logical. Thieme (2002, p. 15) suggested that the distinction between physical and logical access systems is a valuable tool in understanding biometric. He noted that key criteria such accuracy, fallback procedures, privacy requirements, costs, response time and complexity of integration all vary effectively when moving from logical to physical access. WHAT ARE BIOMETRIC STANDARDS Stapleton (2003, p. 167) defined a standard in a general term as a published document, developed by a recognized authority, which defines a set of policies and practices, technical or security requirements, techniques or mechanisms, or describes some other abstract concept or model. The growth of the biometric industry has been relatively slowed by the absence of industry wide standards and this has also impeded various types of biometric deployment. Nanavati (2002, p. 277) stated that the relative youth of the technology in use, coupled with the disunified nature of the industry, has impacted the developments of standards resulting in a sporadic and frequently redundant standards. Nanavati also noted that the live-scan fingerprint imaging is the only segment of biometric industry with widely accepted and adopted standards. Due to this absence of biometric standards, some institutions have been concerned of being tied into technologies they actually believed as not mature or even dev elopmental. However in an effort to actively address the standards issue, the biometric industry has finalized some blueprints and the process of getting industries to accept these standards is ongoing WHY IS STANDARDIZATION NECESSARY? The high rate of biometric development and rapid growth in adoption of biometric technologies in recent years has resulted in ever-increasing levels of what is expected in terms of accuracy, adaptability, and reliability in an ever-wider range of applications. Due to the adoption of biometric technologies in large-scale national and international applications, involving a potentially unlimited range of stakeholders, Farzin Deravi (2008, p. 483) stated that it has become essential to address these expectations by ensuring agreed common frameworks for implementation and evaluation of biometric technologies through standardization activities. Majority of biometric systems, including both the hardware and software are made and sold by the owner of the patent at this stage in their development. They are being proprietary in numerous aspects including the manner in which biometric devices and systems as a whole communicate with applications, the method of extracting features from a biometric sample, and among many more, the method of storing and retrieving biometric data. This resulted in many companies in most cases, being wedded to a particular technology, once they agree to implement that particular technology. Nanavati (2002, p. 278) stated that in order to incorporate a new technology, the companies are required to rebuild their system from scratch upward, and in some cases duplicating much of the deployment effort. Deravi (2008 p. 483) noted that the need for interoperability of biometric systems across national boundaries has implied a rapid escalation of standardization efforts to the international arena, stating that the sense of urgency for the need for standardization has been the priority of internal security concerns. The industry wide or universal adoption of biometric standard will not make biometric technology interoperable at least, to the state where an old device can be replaced by a new device without rebuilding the system. However, Nanavati (2002 p. 278) argued the core algorithms through which vendors locate and extract biometric data are very unlikely to be interoperable or standardized, the reason being that these algorithms represents the basis of most vendors intellectual property. Numerous reasons are responsible for the motivation towards standardization. These include the desire for reducing the overall cost of deploying biometrics technologies and optimize the reliability of biometric systems, to reduce the risk of deploying solutions to biometric problems, to ensure in the area of encryption and file format, that the basic building blocks of biometric data management have been developed based on best practice by industry professionals. Nanavati (2002 p. 278) concluded that standards ensure that, in the future, biometric technology will be developed and deployed in accordance with generally accepted principles of information technology. EXISTING BIOMETRIC STANDARDS Shoniregun and Crosier (2008 p. 22) stated that the evolving interest and developments have made developments of standards a necessity with the sole aim of allowing compatibility of different systems. The detailed standards in the Biometrics Resource Centre (2002) report are summarised below: Common Biometric Exchange File Format (CBEFF): The Common Biometric Exchange File Format (CBEFF) sets a standard for the data elements essential in supporting biometric technology in a common way irrespective of the application involved or the domain in use. It makes data interchange between systems and their components easier, while promoting interoperability applications, programs as well as systems based on biometrics. INCITS MI-Biometrics Technical Committee: The committee which was established by the Executive Board of the International Committee for Information Technology standards (INCITS) with the responsibility to ensure a focused and reasonably comprehensive approach in the United States for the rapid development and approval of previous national and international generic biometric standards (Shoniregun ad Crosier 2008, p. 22) BioAPI Specification (Version 1.1): The BioAPI standard defines the architecture for biometric systems integration in a single computer system. (Deravi 2008, p. 490). The Bio API specification has been one of the most popular standards efforts since it was formed in April 1998 according to Nanavati (2002, p. 279). Nnavati stated that the standard was formed to develop an API that is both widely accepted and widely available while being compatible with various biometric technologies. Other general standards available are Human Recognition Module (HRS), ANSI/NIST-ITL 1-2000, American Association for Motor Vehicle Administration and American National Standards Institute (ANSI) which specifies the acceptable security requirements necessary for effective management of biometric data especially for the financial services industry. BRITISH BIOMETRICS STANDARDS The British Standards Institution (BSI) commenced work in June 2004 on biometrics standards and since then, has published according to Shoniregun and Crosier (2008, p. 24) a set of four new BS ISO/IEC 19794 STANDARDS, reported to have covered the science of biometrics, and using biological characteristics in identifying individuals. The objective of publishing these standards is to promote interoperability between the several products in the market. BS ISO/IEC 19784-2:2007: This standard defines the interface to an archive Biometric Function Provider (BFP). The interface assumes that the collected biometrics data will be managed as a database, irrespective of its physical realization. Crosier (2008, p. 24) defined the physical realization as smartcards, token, memory sticks, files on hard drives and any other kind of memory can be handled via an abstraction layer presenting a database interface.) BS ISO/IEC 19795-2:2006: According to Shoniregun (2008, p. 25), this standard provides recommendations and requirements on collection of data, analysis as well as reporting specific to two types of evaluation (scenario evaluation and technology evaluation). BS ISO/IEC 19795-2:2006 further specifies the requirements in the development and full description of protocols for scenario and technology evaluations and also, in executing and reporting biometric evaluations. BS ISO/IEC 24709-1:2007: ISO/IEC 24709-1:2007 specifies the concepts, framework, test methods and criteria required to test conformity of biometric products claiming conformance to BioAPI (ISO/IEC 19784-1). (www.iso.org). Crosier (2008, p. 25) stated ISO/IEC 24709-1:2007 specifies three conformance testing models which allows conformance testing of each of the BioAPI components mainly a framework, an application and a BSP. BS ISO/IEC 24709-2:2007: The standard BS ISO/IEC 247 defines a number of test assertions composed in the assertion language explicitly required in ISO/IEC 24709-1. The assertions allow a user to test the conformance of any biometric server producer (BSP) that claims to be a conforming implementation of that International Standard to ISO/IEC 19784-1 (BioAPI 2.0) (www.iso.org). BIOMETRICS AND PRIVACY The fact that biometric technologies are based on measuring physiological or behavioral and archiving these data has raised concerns on privacy risks, and also raised discussion on the role biometrics play when it comes to privacy. As stated by Nanavati (2002, p. 237), increase in the use of biometric technology in the public sector, workplace and even at home has raised the following questions: What are the main privacy concerns relating to biometric usage? What kinds of biometric deployments need stronger protections to avoid invading privacy? What biometric technologies are more prone to privacy-invasive usage? What kinds of protections are required to ensure biometrics are used in a non privacy-invasive way? Woodward (2003, p. 197) cited President Clintons speech in his commencement address at Morgan State University in 1997: The right to privacy is one of our most cherished freedomsWe must develop new protections for privacy in the face of new technological reality. Recently, Biometrics has been increasingly deployed to improve security and a very important tool to combat terrorism. Privacy issue is central to biometrics and many people believe that deploying biometrics poses a considerable level of risk to human rights, even though some are of the opinion that biometrics actually protect privacy. Human factors influence the success of a biometric-based identification system to a great extent. The ease as well as comfort in interaction with a biometric system contributes to how people accept it. Jain, Ross and Prabhakar (2004 p. 24) stated an example of a biometric system being able to measure the characteristic of a users without touching, such as those using voice, face, or iris, and concluded that it may be perceived to be a more user-friendly and hygienic system by the users. They added that on the other hand, biometric characteristics not requiring user participation or interaction can be recorded without the knowledge of the user, and this is perceived as a threat to human privacy by many individuals. According to Sim (2009, p. 81), biometrics compared to other security technologies has significant impacts on users privacy (Civil Liberties). It can protect privacy when deployed in an appropriate manner; but when misused, it can result in loss of privacy. ADVANTAGES OF BIOMETRIC OVER TRADITIONAL METHODS Password and PINs have been the most frequently used authentication method. Their use involves controlling access to a building or a room, securing access to computers, network, the applications on the personal computers and many more. In some higher security applications, handheld tokens such as key fobs and smart cards have been deployed. Due to some problems related to these methods, the suitability and reliability of these authentication technologies have been questioned especially in this modern world with modern applications. Biometrics offer some benefits compare to these authentication technologies. INCREASED SECURITY Biometric technology can provide a higher degree of security compared to traditional authentication methods. Chirillo (2003 p. 2) stated that biometrics is preferred over traditional methods for many reasons which include the fact that the physical presence of the authorized person is required at the point of identification. This means that only the authorized person has access to the resources. Effort by people to manage several passwords has left many choosing easy or general words, with considerable number writing the